Lecture Exam 1

Question 1

What is a hormone? What are the two types?

Answer 1

A hormone is a chemical messenger produced by endocrine glands that regulates various physiological processes. There are two types: water-soluble (peptide or protein hormones) and lipid-soluble (steroid hormones).

Question 2

Which type relates to water-soluble? Which type relates to lipid-soluble?

Answer 2

Water-soluble hormones include peptide or protein hormones. Lipid-soluble hormones include steroid hormones.

Question 3

Discuss the action of hormones in activating gene expression through either direct activation or indirect activation. Know how protein hormones vs. lipid hormones activate gene expression.

Answer 3

Hormones can activate gene expression either directly by binding to intracellular receptors (lipid-soluble hormones) or indirectly by binding to cell surface receptors and triggering intracellular signaling pathways (water-soluble hormones). Protein hormones typically use second messengers, while lipid hormones can directly affect gene transcription.

Question 4

How are endocrine glands stimulated? Know the difference between neural, hormonal, and humoral regulation of endocrine glands.

Answer 4

endocrine glands are stimulated by neural stimuli (nervous system signals), hormonal stimuli (other hormones triggering release), and humoral stimuli (changes in blood composition).

Question 5

Know which endocrine gland is the master gland, how it is regulated and what hormones are produced? Know which hormones produced by the master gland are trophic (tropin)? What does this mean? Know the diseases that are caused by too little or too much growth hormone.

Answer 5

The pituitary gland is the master gland, regulated by the hypothalamus. Trophic hormones include TSH, ACTH, FSH, and LH. Diseases related to growth hormone include gigantism and dwarfism.

Question 6

What is the role of ADH? Where is it produced? What else is produced by this gland and what is its role?

Answer 6

ADH (antidiuretic hormone) regulates water balance. It is produced in the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary. Oxytocin is also produced, involved in uterine contractions during childbirth. (Positive feedback)

Question 7

How is the thyroid gland regulated? Is this regulation an example of negative feedback? What is produced by the thyroid gland? What are their roles in the body? Know the diseases of low and high thyroid hormone production.

Answer 7

Thyroid hormone production is regulated by TSH from the pituitary gland. This is an example of negative feedback. The thyroid produces thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), regulating metabolism. Diseases include hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism.

Question 8

Where are the parathyroid glands located? What is produced by this gland? Is it important and for what purpose?

Answer 8

The parathyroid glands are located on the thyroid gland. They produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates calcium levels in the blood.

Question 9

Know the hormones of the Adrenal Gland and how is the Adrenal Gland used in Stress? Know the diseases of high and low hormone production for these hormones.

Answer 9

Adrenal hormones include cortisol (stress response), aldosterone (regulates salt balance), and adrenaline (fight-or-flight). Diseases include Cushing’s syndrome (high cortisol) and Addison’s disease (low cortisol).

Question 10

Know the role of Insulin and Glucagon. Which hormone is associated with Diabetes mellitus and why? Could you draw a teeter-totter that demonstrates their roles in regulating Blood Glucose Levels.

Answer 10

Insulin lowers blood glucose, while glucagon raises it. Diabetes mellitus is associated with insulin dysfunction. Draw a teeter-totter showing insulin and glucagon balancing blood glucose levels.

Question 11

Contrast epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium. What is endocarditis and pericarditis, and what might result in a patient as a result of having these diseases?

Answer 11

Epicardium is the outer layer, myocardium is the middle muscle layer, and endocardium is the inner lining. Endocarditis is inflammation of the inner lining, while pericarditis is inflammation of the pericardium. Complications may include impaired heart function.

Question 12

The major coronary arteries and veins (especially for lab practical). Contrast angina pectoris and myocardial infarction. Make sure you know the difference between ischemia and infarction in causing these diseases.

Answer 12

Contrast angina (chest pain due to reduced blood flow) with myocardial infarction (heart attack). Ischemia is reduced blood flow, while infarction is tissue death.

Question 13

Major events in one cardiac cycle. Contrast the terms systole and diastole. What do the heart sounds “lubb and dubb” correspond with

Answer 13

Outline events in a cardiac cycle. Systole is contraction, diastole is relaxation. “Lubb” is closing of AV valves, “dubb” is closing of semilunar valves.

Question 14

What is auscultation? What is it used to diagnose? Where is it diagnosed

Answer 14

Auscultation is listening to heart sounds. It helps diagnose valve problems, murmurs, or irregular rhythms. It is typically done at specific areas on the chest with a stethoscope.

Question 15

What is the Valsalva maneuver? What is it used to diagnose?

Answer 15

The Valsalva maneuver involves forced expiration against a closed airway. It is used to diagnose heart conditions and autonomic nervous system function.

Question 16

Contrast atrial syncytium and ventricular syncytium.

Answer 16

Atrial syncytium and ventricular syncytium refer to coordinated contraction in the atria and ventricles, respectively.

Question 17

What is the cardiac conduction system? Where does an impulse begin? Be able to follow the path that it takes through the heart

Answer 17

The cardiac conduction system regulates the heartbeat. The impulse begins at the sinoatrial (SA) node and travels through the atria, atrioventricular (AV) node, bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers to stimulate ventricular contraction.

Question 18

What is arrhythmia in general? Contrast fibrillation, tachycardia, bradycardia. How do artificial pacemakers work?

Answer 18

Arrhythmia is an irregular heart rhythm. Fibrillation is chaotic contractions, tachycardia is fast, and bradycardia is slow. Artificial pacemakers regulate the heartbeat by delivering electrical impulses to maintain a regular rhythm.

Question 19

Where in the heart is oxygenated blood and where is there deoxygenated blood and when and where does the blood exchange these conditions?

Answer 19

Oxygenated blood is in the left side of the heart, while deoxygenated blood is on the right. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs in the lungs (pulmonary circuit) and tissues (systemic circuit).

Question 20

What are arterioles? What special features do arterioles have to control blood flow? What are capillaries- know the different types! What do venules do?

Answer 20

Arterioles are small arteries that control blood flow. They have smooth muscle to regulate diameter. Capillaries are tiny vessels facilitating gas and nutrient exchange. Types include continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoidal. Venules collect blood from capillaries.

Question 21

What is pulse? What does it represent?

Answer 21

Pulse is the rhythmic expansion and contraction of arteries due to heart contractions. It represents the pressure wave generated by ventricular contraction.

Question 22

What does blood pressure represent? Where is it measured usually? Contrast stroke volume and cardiac output. What is the Frank-Starling Law? How are cardiac output and stroke volume regulated?

Answer 22

Blood pressure represents the force exerted by blood on vessel walls. It is measured in arteries, usually the brachial artery. Stroke volume is the volume of blood ejected per heartbeat, while cardiac output is the volume per minute. The Frank-Starling Law states that the more the heart is filled with blood during diastole, the more forcefully it contracts during systole. Cardiac output and stroke volume are regulated by factors like heart rate and preload.

Question 23

What is peripheral resistance? How does it relate to blood pressure? What are the contributing factors that determine peripheral resistance?

Answer 23

Peripheral resistance is the resistance blood encounters in the arteries. It relates to blood pressure through the equation BP = CO x PR. Contributing factors include vessel diameter, blood viscosity, and vessel length.

Question 24

What is hypertension? List some contributing factors. If prolonged, what can happen? Make sure you know the Step Wise Treatment for hypertension and how each step affects peripheral resistance and/or cardiac output.

Answer 24

Hypertension is high blood pressure. Contributing factors include genetics, diet, stress, and age. Prolonged hypertension can damage vessels and organs. Stepwise treatment includes lifestyle changes, diuretics, beta-blockers, and other medications, each affecting peripheral resistance or cardiac output.

Question 25

What is the silent killer? Why?

Answer 25

Hypertension is often called the silent killer because it may have no symptoms but can lead to serious complications such as heart disease, stroke, or kidney damage.

Question 26

Identify CVA. What may cause this?

Answer 26

CVA (cerebrovascular accident) is a stroke caused by disrupted blood flow to the brain. Causes include blood clot or ruptured blood vessel.