Lecture Exam 1 Flashcards
Five special senses
Olfaction
Gustation
Vision
Equilibrium
Hearing
Function of olfactory glands/bowman’s glands
Their secretions absorb water and produced a form of thick, pigmented mucus that covers the olfactory epithelium
Process of olfaction
Odorant binds the olfactory cilium
Olfactory reception occurs on the surfaces of the olfactory cilia as dissolved chemicals(odorant-binding proteins) interact with modified neuronal receptors on the membrane surface of the cilium
Where are gustatory receptors located
Taste bud’s taste hairs on tongue
Three types of lingual papillae
Filiform papilla: no taste buds
Fungiform papillae: 5 taste buds
Circumvallate papillae: 100 taste buds
What two cranial nerves monitor the taste bud
FACIAL (VII)
GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL (IX)
4 primary taste sensations
Sweet
Sour
Salty
Bitter
Purpose of eyelids or palpebrae
Cover and protect the eye
How are the margins of the eyelids connected
Medial canthus
Lateral canthus
What contains glands that produce thick gritty secretions appearing after a good nights sleep
Medial canthus
What is the conjunctiva
Mucus covering or lining the inner surfaces of the eyelids and also covering the sclera, the anterior surface of the eye.
Palpebral conjunctiva
Cornea
The transparent portion of the outer fibrous layer of the eye.
Iris
Pigmented portion of the eye
Pupil
Central opening in the eye through with light passes
Ciliary body is made out of the
Ciliary muscle: smooth muscular ring and suspensory ligaments that controls shape of the lens.
Where is the fovea centralis
Center of macula lutea, this area of the retina contains only cones.
What part of the retina is the optic disc
Disc is where the optic nerve attaches to the retina. Has no photoreceptors. Light goes unnoticed, blind spot.
Posterior cavity of the eye contains
Contains the gelatinous vitreous body that stabilizes shape of eye and supports retina.
Aqueous humor pathway through the anterior chamber
After filtering through a network of connective tissues located near the base of the iris, aqueous humor enters the canal of Schlemm (SVS) that drains aqueous humor back to the venous system, servicing the eye.
3 types of cones
Blue
Green
Red
Structure of external ear
Auricle or pinna
External auditory canal
Passageway that ends at the tympanic membrane, also called the tympanum or eardrum.
The auditory ossicles connect the tympanic membrane to the
Oval window
Receptors in the ___ provide senses of equilibrium and hearing
Inner ear
The basic receptor of the inner ear
Hair cells
Where are the hair cells of the utricle and saccule found
Maculae
Each semicircular duct contains an
Ampullae
The cochlear duct sits on the
Basilar membrane
Hearing process 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)
1) movement of tympanic membrane moves malleus.
2) movement of the malleus moved the incus and stapes.
3) movement of stapes at oval window creates pressure waves in the perilymph of vestibular duct.
4) pressure waves distort basilar membrane on their way to the round window of the tympanic duct
5) information of region and intensity of stimulation, through the displacement of stereocilia, is relayed to CNS over the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII).
3 basic chemical structures
Amino acid
Peptide (protein) hormones
Lipid
The hypothalamus deals with
The highest/most complex level of endocrine control and responses.
Hypothalamus controls the
Anterior pituitary lobe by releasing and inhibiting hormones
Hormones of the Anterior pituitary
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
- controls release of glucocorticoids from the Adrenal Cortex
Prolactin
- stimulates production of milk by mammary glands
Hormones in the Posterior pituitary
produced by hypothalamus
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) produced by Supraoptic nuclei in hypothalamus. Senses changes in blood osmotic pressure.
Oxytocin produced by Paraventricular nuclei in hypothalamus.
Growth hormone pathology: giantism
Excessive secretion of GH prior to puberty will cause giantism
Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
Secreted by the anterior pituitary’s pars intermedia. Stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin.
Function of C cells(Parafollicular cells)
C cells produce the hormone calcitonin (CT).
Calcitonin: aids in the regulation of calcium in body fluids, by lowering the blood levels of calcium.
Function of parathyroid gland
Chief/parathyroid cells will produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), PTH secretion will increase the concentration of Ca+ ions in the blood.
Calcitonin coming from the thyroid cells will lower the concentration of calcium ions in the blood.
PTH and Calcitonin are antagonistic to each other.
Inner layer of cortex
Zona Reticularis
Produces androgens (steroid hormones) that will be converted into testosterone
Middle layer of Cortex
Zona Fasciculata
Produces steroid hormones also known as glucocorticoids (primarily cortisol/hydrocortisone) when stimulated by ACTH from the anterior pituitary.
Outer layer of Cortex
Zona Glomerulosa
Contains mineralocorticoids that make aldosterone: it’s secretion stimulates the conservation of sodium ions and the elimination of potassium, regulating the sodium ion concentration in the blood.
The two Catecholamines of the Adrenal Medulla
Epinephrine (adrenaline)
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
Secretory cells in the Pineal Gland
Pinealocytes produce melatonin (originating from serotonin)
What endocrine and exocrine cells are located in the Pancreas
Alpha cells: produce glucagon
Beta cells: produce insulin
What is insulin
A Pancreatic Peptide Hormone released by beta cells that cause blood sugar levels to fall. When blood glucose levels rise, insulin is released.
Diabetes mellitus: when the pancreas can’t produce insulin.
What is Glucagon
From alpha cells, causes blood glucose levels to rise. When blood sugar levels fall, glucagon is released to rise levels.
What happens when there is low Oxygen
EPO stimulates, causing an increase in the production of red blood cells within the bone marrow.
What is Renin responsible for
The activation of angiotensinogen (hormone of liver) to angiotensin I.
In the lungs, I is then modified it the hormone II by ACE (enzyme of lungs).
Hormone produced by Thymus
Thymosin makes Tlymphocytes for maintenance of immune system.
Intersticial/Leydig cells in the Gonads secrete
Testosterone belonging to the androgen family
Inhibin
Decrease secretion of FSH by negative feedback fashion
2nd phase of GAS
If a stress lasts longer than a few hours, you’ll enter the resistance phase(dominated by glucocorticoids) of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Functions of blood
- Transporting gases, cells, nutrients, and waste products.
- Regulating pH and electrolyte concentration of interstitial fluids.
- Restricting fluid loss
- Regulating body temperature by absorbing and redistributing heat.
Components that constitute blood
Formed elements in Plasma
What is 60% of the plasma protein
Albunin
Globulins account for
-35-37%
-Antibodies/immunoglobulins: types of plasma proteins important for body defense.
-Attack foreign proteins and pathogens
Fibrinogen
- 4%
- Plasma proteins necessary for blood clotting
Plasma - Fibrinogen =
Serum
Erythropoiesis
Process of RBC production in the Red Bone Marrow’s Myeloid Tissue
Flat bones: Vertebrae, Sternum, Ribs
Long bones: Femur
When would Bone Marrow increase Erythropoiesis or RBS production
When oxygen levels in blood decrease. Nothing to do with CO2 levels.
What is a Reticulocyte
Immature erythrocytes sometimes found in peripheral blood samples
Purpose of Erythropoietin (EPO)
To regulate red cell production
Red blood cells lack
Nucleus
Main function of Red Blood Cells
Carry and distribute oxygen
Average life span of a RBC
120 days
Accounts for 95% of RBC proteins
Hemoglobin: binds oxygen molecules
Average in gender
Females: 12-16 g/dl
Males: 14-18 g/dl
Each hemoglobin has ____________, each attaching _________
4 proteins, four hemes
What is Anemia
When the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood is reduced
Pernicious Anemia is when
Vitamin B12 (formed in the duodenum) is not obtained from diet
Hypovolemic
Low blood volumes in a patient
Hematocrit
The percentage of whole blood occupied by cellular elements. Average for female is 42 (37-47).
Fresh blood is usually collected from…
Superficial vein
What can be used to check efficiency of gas exchange
Arterial puncture
Blood type is determined by presence or absence of…
Specific surface antigens
Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils, Monocytes contribute to the body’s…
Nonspecific defenses
Of all Leukocytes which is most abundant
Neutrophils: most numerous white blood cells in peripheral circulation
Eosinophils will…
Increase during allergic reactions or parasitic infections.
Basophils release…
Histamine at the site of injury(dilates blood vessels) and heparin(prevents blood from clotting)
Hormone responsible for stimulating production of granulocytes
G-CSF
Megakaryocyte cells become
mature megakaryocyte in bone marrow loose cytoplasm and become platelets
Coagulation (blood clotting)
Involves a complex sequence of steps leading to the conversion of the circulating suspended fibrinogen into the insoluble protein fibrin
Adequate amounts of vitamin K must be present for the liver to be able to synthesize
Clotting factors: II, VII, IX, X
Fibrinolysis
Plasminogen will become a plasmid enzyme and then it will begin digesting the fibrin strands, causing erosion of the foundation
Embolus
A drifting blood clot or an abnormal mass within the bloodstream
Embolism
Blockage
Thrombus
Attaches to a vessel wall
Plaques
Areas in blood vessels where smooth muscle cells store large quantities of lipids (cholesterol build)
