lecture exam 1 Flashcards
sagittal plane
divides body into left and right
midsagittal plane
Divides the body into EQUAL left and right halves
Coronel or frontal plane
Divides the body into anterior and posterior
Transverse or horizontal plane
Divides the body into superior and inferior portions
Cephalic region
Head
Orbital
eye
nasal
nose
oral
mouth
mental
chin
frontal
forehead
occipital
Back of head
Cervical region
neck
thorax/ thoracic region
chest to hips
pectoral region
chest
mammary region
breast
sternal region
chest between left and right portions
axillary region
armpit
abdominal region
inferior to the diaphragm and superior to the pelvic brim of the hip bones
pelvic region
inferior to the abdominal region, between the hip bones
deltoid region
shoulder
brachium region
arm shoulder to elbow
antecubital region
elbow
antebrachial region
forearm (elbow to wrist)
carpal region
wrist
palmar
palm of hand
dorsum
back of hand
Femoral region
thigh (hip to knee)
patellar region
anterior (front) surface of the knee
popliteal region
posterior (back) of the knee
crural region
leg from knee to ankle
plantar
sole of the foot
dorsum
top of the foot
mediastinum
body cavity between lungs
pericardial cavity
associated with the heart
parietal layer
part of a serous membrane that lines the internal surface of body wall
visceral layer
part of a serous membrane that covers external surface of organs
serous cavity
potential space between parietal and visceral layer
plasma membrane
surrounds cell and gives it form
2 components of cytoplasm
cytosol and organelles
nucleus
contains DNA
structure of plasma membrane
double layer of phospholipids with proteins scattered throughout (attatched, embedded, or floating)
cholesterols role in the plasma membrane
structural support-cellular bungee cords
role of glycocalyx in cell
participates in cell to cell recognition in the cell membrane (glycoproteins)
pros and cons of selective permeability
Pros: large bad stuff blocked, small good stuff travels freely, keeps cell structures in, and protection
Cons: protein pumps require energy and some good compounds cannot enter the cell
microvilli
Numerous tiny folds in the plasma membrane
Increases surface area of the cell for more efficient absorption through the membrane
Cilia
Larger hair-like projection
mitochondria
Produces ATP
Contains its own DNA
Presence of mitochondria is an indirect measure of cell activity level
Strictly maternally inherited
ribosomes
Protein synthesis
Free ribosomes: not attached to any other structure and creates proteins for the cell itself
Attached ribosomes: attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum and creates proteins for the plasma membrane or to be exported out of the cell
Endoplasmic reticulum
Network of tubules used to transport and synthesize
rough ER
Has ribosomes on walls
Synthesizes and distributes proteins
smooth ER
Has no ribosomes
Synthesizes lipids (especially steroid hormones)
Detoxifies drugs and alcohol… Lots present and liver and adrenal glands
lysosomes
Organelles containing digestive enzymes that break down waste within the cell
centrioles
Pair of rod shaped structures involved in cell division
what structure surrounds the nucleus?
Nuclear envelope
what form is DNA in when the cell is not dividing?
Chromatin
(better protection and lower chance for mutation this way)
what types of cells have a nucleolus?
Cells that have to do lots of heavy lifting like a motor neurons or muscle cells
function of the nucleolus
Synthesizes the parts that form ribosomes
Ribosomal subunits
are sex cells haploid or diploid?
Haploid
are somatic cells haploid or diploid?
diploid
two main phases of the cell cycle
Interphase and the mitotic face
what form of DNA exists in prophase
DNA is in replicated chromosomes
details of prophase
Spindle fibers go from centrioles to chromatids
The nuclear envelope begins to break down
details of metaphase
Chromosomes lineup along the center of the cell
Details of anaphase
Spindle fibers pull sister chromatids apart at the centromere
Sister chromatids are now called single-stranded chromosomes
Single-stranded chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell
Details of telophase
Nuclear envelope reforms
Cleavage furrow develops (where is cytoplasm is dividing)
Cytokinesis begins
what happens at the end of mitosis
The cell re-enters interphase
meiosis versus mitosis
Meiosis is done by sex cells, has two rounds of division, and results in four genetically different haploid daughter cells
Mitosis is done by body cells, has one round of division, and results in two genetically identical diploid daughter cells
replicated double-stranded chromosome
Two exact copy sister chromatids connected by a centromere
pair of chromosomes
homologous maternal and paternal chromosomes
homologous chromosomes
One chromatid from each parent, each codes for the same genetic information
single-stranded chromosome
Single chromatid with a centromere
What happens in interphase
DNA is replicated!
Prophase I of meiosis
Homologous pairs of chromosomes grouped together
Crossing over occurs
Nuclear envelope breaks down
metaphase I of meiosis
Pairs of homologous chromosomes line up at equatorial plate
Independent assortment: maternal and paternal chromosomes don’t have to be on the same side of the double line of the cell
anaphase I
Pairs of homologous chromosomes separate and are pulled to opposite ends of the cell
telophase I
Two new cells are formed, each with 23 individual chromosomes
Each chromosome is still replicated
at the end of meiosis I…
Cell produces two haploid daughter cells
Daughter cells each have 23 replicated chromosomes consisting of two sister chromatids each
Parent cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes but daughter cells have 23 single chromosomes
prophase II
Replicated chromosomes gather at the center of the cell
** no crossing over
metaphase II
Replicated chromosomes line up at the equatorial plate
** Single line of chromosomes
Anaphase II
Anaphase II
Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite ends of the cell
Ends up with single stranded chromosomes
telophase II
Up to four new daughter cells form
Each cell has 23 single stranded chromosome
Daughter cells are gametes
non-disjunction
When the chromatids fail to properly separate during meiosis, creating daughter cells with different numbers of chromosomes
histology
The microscopic study of tissues
a tissue
A group of similar cells (in an extra cellular matrix) that performs a common function
four kinds of tissues
Epithelium, connective, muscle, and nervous
Characteristics of epithelia
Composed almost entirely of cells (very little ECM)
Polarity: has an apical and basal surface
Bound to underlying tissue by a basement membrane
Avascular
High regenerative capacity
two main categories of epithelium
Simple and stratified
cell shapes found in epithelium (3)
Squamous, cuboidal, and columnar
characteristics of simple squamous epithelium
One layer of flattened cells
Function: diffusion and filtration
Examples: alveoli and lumens of blood vessels
characteristics of simple cuboidal epithelium
Single layer of cells about as tall as they are wide, typically rounded
Function: secretion and absorption
Example: kidneys
characteristics of simple columnar epithelium
Single layer of tall cells
Function: secretion and absorption
Has a “brush border” of microvilli
Contains goblet cells that secrete mucus for lubrication
Characteristics of pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Cells are columnar, but irregularly shaped
Some kinds are ciliated
Contains goblet cells
Example: upper respiratory tract
main function of stratified epithelia
Protection!!
Characteristics of stratified squamous epithelium
Several layers of flattened cells
Superficial layers of cells are flattened, deeper layers are cuboidal
Keratinized or not keratinized
Characteristics of Stratified keratinized squamous epithelium
Most superficial layers of cells are dead, full of keratin
Example: epidermis
Characteristics of stratified nonkeratinized squamous epithelium
Most superficial cells are alive and kept moist
Example: oral cavity and vagina
characteristics of transitional epithelium
Some cells are binucleated
Withstand the stretching and relaxation of the bladder
Example: most of the urinary tract
Function of unicellular glands
To secrete mucus
Example: goblet cell
function of multicellular glands
To secrete materials through a duct
Merocrine gland
Cell remains intact, secretion passes from the cell
Most glands in the body
No damage is done to the cell during secretion
Example: salivary glands and most sweat glands
apocrine glands
Top part of the cell is pinched off and that becomes the secretion
The cell repairs itself and remains functional
Example: mammary glands
holocrine glands
Cells rupture, die, and become the secretion
The whole cell dies and is not repaired
Example: sebaceous glands of the skin
characteristics of connective tissue
Derived from mesenchyme, embryonic CT
Typically vascular
Consists of cells, proteins fibers, and ground substance
what two components make up the extra cellular matrix?
Protein fibers and ground substance
four types of connective tissue
Areolar, adipose, dense irregular, and dense regular
characteristics of areolar connective tissue
Cells: fibroblast
Very vascular
Function: packing and binding material, especially around organs
Found in subcutaneous layer
characteristics of adipose connective tissue
Cells: adipocytes (nucleus is pushed to periphery by fat droplet
Function: energy storage, insulation, and protection/support
Example: subcutaneous layer and surrounding organs
characteristics of dense irregular connective tissue
Cells: fibroblasts
Relatively little ground substance
Collagen fibers found in clumps
Highly vascular
Function: strength and support, withstand stresses in multiple directions
Examples: dermis, perichondrium, and periosteum
characteristics of dense regular connective tissue
Cells: fibroblasts, very little ground substance
Densely packed collagen fibers running parallel
Poor vascularity
Function: strength and support, resist stress applied in one direction
Example: tendons and ligaments
three types of cartilage
Hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage
characteristics of hyaline cartilage
Found on joint surfaces, trachea, and the fetal skeleton
Action: support and provides a smooth surface for joint movement
characteristics of fibrocartilage
Found in intervertebral disc, pubic symphysis, and menisci
Function: support and with standing compression
characteristics of elastic cartilage
Found in external ear
Function: flexibility and strength
name of the spaces where osteocytes rest
Lacunae
periosteum
Surrounding bone tissue
two kinds of bone tissue
Compact and spongy
compact bone
Outer shell of the bone, totally solid and hardened
spongy bone
Inner latticework a bone, houses hemopoietic tissue
Three types of muscle tissue
Skeletal muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, and smooth or visceral muscle tissue
characteristics of skeletal muscle tissue
Cell shape: long and cylindrical
Cells are multi nucleated and the nuclei are at the periphery of the cell
striated
Function: moves the skeleton, stabilize his joints, and produces heat when contracted
characteristics of cardiac muscle tissue
Cell shape: short, cylinder Cole, and bifurcated
Cells have one or two centrally located nuclei
Intercalated discs: specialized cell junctions that transmit nerve impulses through the heart and make sure that all of the muscles contract at the same time
striated
Only found in the heart
characteristics of smooth or visceral muscle tissue
Cells: spindle-shaped cells
Cells have one centrally located nucleus
No striations
Moves materials through hollow organs
integument
Skin!
Integumentary system
Made of the skin, exocrine glands in the skin, hair, and nails
main functions of integument (7)
Protection, water resistance/preventing water loss, temperature regulation, secretions, vitamin D synthesis, sensory reception, and immune defense
what is the most superficial layer of integument?
The epidermis
characteristics of the epidermal
Most to superficial layer
Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
Avascular
Four or five specific layers, depending on thickness of skin
Contains epidermal ridges: rounded projections that interlock with the dermis
characteristics of dermis
Layer deep to the epidermidis
Primarily dense irregular connective tissue
Vascular
Contains nerve endings, hair follicles, and glands
Contains dermal papillae: projections to interlock with epidermal ridges of epidermidis
characteristics of the subcutaneously
Technically not part of the integument, but a layer deep to integument
Made of areolar connective tissue and adipose tissue
Stores fat and anchors integument to underlying tissue
Four types of cells in the epidermis
Keratinocytes, melanocytes, tactile cells (Merkel cells), and epidermal dendritic cells (langerhans cells)
characteristics of keratinocytes
Most numerous – 90%
Found throughout all layers
Produces keratin
Cells undergo mitosis, move through all layers, and our sloughed off at the surface of the skin
characteristics of melanocytes
About 8%
Found only in the stratum basale
Produces melanin
Regardless of skin color, most people have around the same number of melanocytes… The activity of the cells is what controls the color, not the quantity
Characteristics of tactile cells (Merkel Cells)
Found in Stratum basale only
Provide the tactile or touch sensation
Connects to nerve endings
characteristics of epidermal dendritic cells (langerhans cells)
Found in stratum Spinosum
Phagocytize bacteria and foreign debris
Immune cells!
The five layers of the epidermis
From deep to superficial: stratum basale, stratum Spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum
characteristics of the stratum basale
Single layer of columnar or cuboidal keratinocytes testing on the basement membrane
Keratinocytes constantly dividing mitotically
Also includes some tactile cells and melanocytes
characteristics of stratum spinosum
Several layers of polygonal shaped keratinocytes
Also contains epidermal dendritic cells
characteristics of stratum granulosum
3 to 5 layers of granular, flattened keratinocytes
Keratinocytes begin to undergo keratinization here
** only keratinocytes
Characteristics of stratum lucidum
Only seen in thick skin
2 to 3 layers of pale, flattened, anucleate keratinocytes
Cells not all dead, but almost
Characteristics of stratum corneum
20 to 30 layers of dead, anucleate keratinocytes
Most superficial cells are completely dead and constantly being slopped off
two layers of the dermis
Papillary and reticular layer
characteristics of the papillary layer of the dermis
Most superficial layer, contains dermal papilla that articulate with the epidermal
characteristics of the reticular layer of the dermis
Deep to the papillary layer, contains secretary portions of sweat glands, oil glands, and hair follicles
nails
Formed from stratum corneum
Functions: protecting tips of fingers and toes, and helping with grasping object
hair
Continuously lost and replaced
Functions: protection, heat retention, and sensory reception
Associated with sebaceous glands and arrector pili muscles
Two types of exocrine glands found in the integument
Sebaceous oil glands and sweat or sudoriferous gland
characteristics of sebaceous
Holocrine glands
Entire cell ruptures, dies, and becomes secretion
Associated with hair follicles
Secrete sebum
Functions: lubrication and waterproofing, preventing hair from becoming brittle, and to plug up and form zits
characteristics of sweat or sudoriferous gland
Function: excretion of waste products, specifically sodium Andrea, and releasing perspiration to cool off the
osteology
The study of bones
four components of bone
Phone connected tissue, dense irregular connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves
five functions of the skeletal system
Support, protection, body movement, mineral storage, and hematopoiesis
hematopoiesis
Production of blood cells by red bone marrow in some areas of spongy bone
Four different bone shape
Long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones
what four components make up a long bone?
Diaphysis medullary cavity, epiphyses, and articular cartilage
diaphysis
The cylindrical shaft of a long bone including the ring of compact bone and the medullary cavity
medullary cavity
Hollow inside of the diaphysis
what lines the medullary cavity?
Endosteum: dense irregular connective tissue
what is inside of adult medullary cavities?
Yellow bone marrow
epiphysis
The outside layer of compact bone surrounding spongy bone at the proximal and distal ends of the bone
Periosteum
The dense irregular connective tissue that covers the outside of bones
Highly vascular
where is the one place where periosteum is not found?
Articular surfaces of the bone
perforating fibers
Protein fibers anchoring periosteum to the bone
Function: protection and growth in width of bone
what are the three types of bone cells?
Osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts
Osteoblasts
Immature bone cells
What is the foundation of bone
Secrete osteoid, a semi solid bone matrix
osteocytes
Mature bone cells
Maintains the bone matrix
Osteoclasts
Breaks down and re-absorbs existing bone
Formed from red bone marrow cells fused together
what are the structural unit of compact bone?
Osteons
eight components of an osteon
Central canal, Concentric lamellae, osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi, perforating canals, interstitial lamellae, and circumferential lamellae
Central canal of an osteon
The opening at the center of an osteon that contains blood vessels and nerves
Runs parallel to diaphysis
concentric lamellae of an osteon
Concentric rings of bone matrix surrounding the central canal
osteocytes within an osteon
Mature bone cells, sits between lamellae and maintains bone matrix
lacunae of osteons
Spaces where osteocytes reside
canaliculi of an osteon
Tiny channels that radiate from lacunae
Provides exchange of nutrients and waste between central canals and osteocytes
perforating canal’s
Canals that run perpendicular to the central canals connecting multiple central canals
Interstitial lamellae
Lamella not surrounded by a central canal, incomplete remnants of osteons
circumferential lamellae
Rings of bone that run the entire circumference of the shaft, created by periosteum
ossification
Formation and growth of bone tissue
intramembranous ossification
Pre-existing tissue is mesenchyme
Example: flat bones of the skull
endochondral ossification
Existing tissue is hyaline cartilage
Example: most bones in the body other than the bones of the skull
four stages of intramembranous ossification
Ossification centers form within second regions of the mesenchyme, osteoid undergoes calcification, woven bone and surrounding periosteum form, and lamellar bone replaces woven bone
