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occupational > Lecture 9 - training > Flashcards

Lecture 9 - training Flashcards

1
Q

why do we do training

A
  • so employees know what to do at work
  • stress can results when employees are unale to meet the knowledge and skill requirements of their work
  • organisations require training for their employees if they are to meet the challenges of change. And this can might mean training new attitudes as well as the usual knowledge and skills.
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2
Q

define training

A

‘the systematic acquisition of skills, knowledge, and attitudes that will lead to an acceptable level of human performance on a specific activity in a given context’.

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3
Q

name the different types of training

A

management training, social skills training, coaching, and health and safety training

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4
Q

what is leading to difficulty when training

A

Increasingly difficult to separate from Education as job training requirements become less specific and require a broader KSA basis for effective performance

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5
Q

what process is used when training

A

the systems approach to training

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6
Q

what happens in the systems approach to training

A

We will consider the Training Process in a systematic way, whereby the Design of training programmes must be based on an Analysis of what needs to be trained, and training programmes must be Evaluated on completion to see if those training needs have been met.

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7
Q

what components are required in the training process

A 
Training Needs Analysis (TNA) - what needs to be trained
Training Programme Design (TD) – need to consider the Psychology of how people Learn and how useful this knowledge might be in producing some Principles to use for programme design.  Also need to consider how the content will be delivered – the  Training Media 
Training Evaluation (TE) – has the training programme worked
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8
Q

what happens in TNA

A
  • Establish organisational requirements
  • identify trainees
  • define training objectivs for each need
  • derive training content
  • develop criterion measres
  • develop performance tests
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9
Q

why do we do TNA

A

to enable the training programme design to satisfy the needs of the TNA

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10
Q

TNA- what required to establish organisational requirements

A

Need to adapt, change with changes in the business environment.

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11
Q

TNA - how do we identify trainees

A

Who are they and what can they do already.
Establish existing knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSA).
Individual appraisal or assessment centre.
Need To know ?

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12
Q

TNA - why do we Define training objectives for each need

A

need to know the gap between what they can do and what is required to do

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13
Q

TNA - what should the objectives be

A

Objectives may be terminal end of course or subordinate, enabling objectives.
The task analysis used to identify training needs will point to the types of skills required to perform tasks. However, in deriving the content of training, it has still to be decided what the person needs to learn in order to perform them

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14
Q

TNA - what types of knowledge is needed to be defined when regarding defining traning objectives

A

Task knowledge – e.g. the minimum knowledge requirement, such as ‘what buttons to press’, IT basics, command learning, keyboard skills, and so on;
• Functional knowledge – e.g. why the task is being carried out, and how the computer does it.
• General knowledge – e.g. wider, supporting knowledge structure. The place of the task(s) within the whole system.

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15
Q

TNA - what is done to derive training content

A

What is actually going to be trained. What the training programme will do. The key aspects. Can’t train everything. Time constraints, etc.
From a task analysis, establish the KSA needed to perform particular tasks to reach desired objectives
This can be done using a hierarchical breakdown of objectives to be reached into their constituent tasks and subtasks using a Hierarchical Task Analysis. The ‘goals’ and their constituent ‘tasks’ and ‘subtasks’ of trainees are redescribed, or broken down, to a level where they can be trained.

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16
Q

TNA - what do we do to derive training content

A

can be done using a hierarchical breakdown of objectives to be reached into their constituent tasks and subtasks using a Hierarchical Task Analysis. The ‘goals’ and their constituent ‘tasks’ and ‘subtasks’ of trainees are redescribed, or broken down, to a level where they can be trained.

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17
Q

TNA- why do we develop criterion measures

A

Objectives should have measurable criteria of successful performance, so that knowledge of progress can be given on the way to acceptable performance being attained. The time available in relation to ability and levels should be considered when setting criteria.

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18
Q

TNA - how do we develop criterion measures

A

Prerequisite, entry-level (Statements of Minimum Qualifications (SMQ)), in-session, and end-of-course. Practicals, written examinations, etc.

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19
Q

what is training design

A

the psychology of learning and principles for training

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20
Q

TD - what are some behaviourist theories

A

(associationist theories)- eg

  • classical conditioning
  • instrumental (operant) conditioning
  • social learning theory
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21
Q

TD- what are some cognitive theories

A
  • assimilation to schema
  • theories of skill acquisition :
    Anderson / fitts/ gagnes
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22
Q

TD - explain the assimilation to schema cognitive learning theory

A

accretion, tuning and restructuring

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23
Q

TD - explain the theories of skill acuisiton (cognitive) model –> FITS

A

• Fitts (1962) 3-stage model (cognitive, associative and autonomous) of skill acquisition

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24
Q

TD - explain the theories of skill acuisiton (cognitive) model –> Anderson

A

Anderson (1982) 3-stage model (declarative knowledge, knowledge compilation into procedural knowledge, and tuning) for the acquisition of cognitive skills

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25
Q

TD - explain the theories of skill acuisiton (cognitive) model –>Gagnes learning of hierarchy

A

Gagne’ s Learning Hierarchy (in his 1977 book, ‘The Conditions of Learning’). Identified seven types of learning (capabilities) arranged hierarchically:-

i) stimulus-response connections;
ii) chains of associations;
iii) verbal associations;
iv) discriminations;
v) concepts;
vi) rules;
vii) problem solving.

26
Q

TD- name some theorists who investigate individual differences in learning styles

A

Pasks 1976
kolb 1984
honey and mumford 1982

27
Q

TD - explain Pasks 1976- individual differences in learning style

A

Pask’s (1976) wholists and serialists. Possible link with field dependence and field independence.
Also Style A (holistic, field dependent, divergent mode of processing) and Style B (serial, field independent, analytical).

28
Q

TD - explain Kolbs 1984- individual differences in learning style

A

Kolb’s (Experiential Learning, 1984) divergers, assimilators, convergers and accomodators.
Gather information by concrete experience (CE) or abstract conceptualisation (AC).
Process that information through reflective observation (RO) or active experimentation (AE).
e.g. accomodators are CE/AE: convergers AC/AE: divergers CE/RO: and assimilators AC/RO.

29
Q

TD - explain Honey and mumfords 1982- individual differences in learning style

A

Honey and Mumford’s (Manual of Learning Styles, 1982) activists, reflectors, theorists and pragmatists
Such theories point to ways in which instruction should be sequenced and how feedback should be provided.

30
Q

TD - explain what sequencing of instruction is

A

Several cognitive-based theories have been put forward which attempt to specify the order in which instruction should be given so that optimal knowledge structures can be constructed. Common theme is whether instruction should proceed from the general to the specific, or vice-versa.

31
Q

TD- describe scaffolding

A
  • Advance Organisers (Ausubel, 1968):- Comparative for new information related to what is already known and Expository for new information unknown to the trainee
  • Elaboration (Reigeluth, 1980):- ‘top down’ where an outline, termed the ‘epitome’ or ‘orientation structure’, is followed by elaboration of ‘supporting structures’ . The latter can also be subdivided for elaboration of their ‘supporting structures’.
  • Webs (Norman, Rigney, 1978):- ‘outside in’ where an outline (or supporting web structure) is filled in with detail.
32
Q

TD - what is Massed (Cramming) versus Distributed (Spaced) Practice

A

e.g.
Repetition and Retention (Ebbinghaus)
Encoding Variability
Tension (Lewin) and the Zeigarnik Effect

33
Q

TD - what is part VS whole

A

e.g.
Task Complexity
Task Organisation
Progressive Part

34
Q

TD - what is feedback also known as

A

Also known as knowledge of results, or reinforcement.

35
Q

TD - what theories are feedback associated with

A

Clearly associated with association theories of learning where positive or negative reinforcement of responses enhances learning.

36
Q

TD- what are the two types of feedback

A

Feedback may be intrinsic or extrinsic to the task.

37
Q

TD- what is intrinsic feedback

A

refers to that available in the normal task situation and may be proprioceptive, visual, or auditory. Importance of this shown when it is removed or delayed, e.g. inverted spectacles, spring loading cf. freemoving controls in a tracking task, inhibited performance through blindness or deafness, and delay in response to speech. Adaptation possible over time, but only in simple tasks.

38
Q

TD- what is extrinsic feedback

A

Extrinsic feedback is that provided in addition to the task. It may be:- i) concurrent (action) or terminal (learning); ii) immediate or delayed; iii) verbal or non-verbal; iv) separate or accumulated.
Different tasks may require different combinations.
Extrinsic should direct the learner to intrinsic, since the former will eventually be withdrawn.

39
Q

TD - define guidance

A

Error free training which is given prior to a response. May be given by imposing physical restrictions, forcing the correct response, or given verbally or visually.

40
Q

TD - what are the different forms of guidance

A

Prompting, e.g. by showing the correct response along with the stimulus, e.g. when learning postal codes, or…

Cuing when the trainee is warned when something is about to occur, e.g. in recognising symptoms prior to the occurrence of the stimulus of interest.

Guidance generally good for the establishment of correct responses early in training, but may bore the trainee as they progress - need to try it and see what happens!

41
Q

TD - assides from assessing how people learn, with regards to TD, what else should be considered

A

When we know what is to be trained, and who will be the trainees - and we have taken account in our training programme design of what we know about how people learn – we still need to consider of how we can actually impart the information and how we can give trainees practice to develop their skills.

42
Q

TD- what do Information Presentation Techniques teach

A

To teach facts, concepts, attitudes, etc. without requiring practice.

43
Q

TD- describe lectures of a form of TD

A

Have little learner participation, give little feedback, no provision is made for learner individual differences, and the whole relies on the lecturer being competent. However, they are economical, and may even be inspiring!

44
Q

TD - what does computer based media training encompass

A

Incorporates many aspects of good training principles:-

Good for information presentation - the ‘latest’ in programmed instruction.

Latter requires an active response (to each ‘frame’ ) from the learner, gives immediate feedback, permits self-pacing, and facilitates learning by enabling the desired sequencing of information.

Uses ‘linear’ and ‘branching’ strategies. High initial cost and development time

Can ‘adapt’ to the trainee’s needs

45
Q

TD- why should skill acquisition be considered

A

it enables trainees to practise what they have learnt

46
Q

TD - what is the advantages of skills acquisition by doing it on the job

A

Everything from simple procedures to learning to drive a car or the flight training of pilots.

Key advantage is the presence of intrinsic feedback of the actual job. Its success, though, does depend on the competence of the instructor/supervisor in giving guidance or providing feedback.

47
Q

TD - what is the advantages of skills acquisition by doing it using computer based traiing media

A

Permits OJT via ‘embedded’ software running on the real system

Enables complex (Off The Job) simulation to be performed

48
Q

TD- how can simulationbe done using devices and techiques

A

We can consider ‘simulation’ in terms of an actual device used for training, e.g. the flight simulator, or to cover all training when the actual task or job is not being performed, and/or the usual operational situation is not used. The latter would include such off-the-job training as role playing or business games.

49
Q

TD- When is simulation using devices used

A

It is used when it is desired to:-
provide extra information, i.e. extrinsic feedback or guidance
• remove environmental stressors
• manipulate temporal dimensions
• keep training costs down
• train aspects of the whole task, e.g. skill trainers, concept trainers, procedural trainers and
• the actual task is as yet unavailable
• the costs and consequences of error are high

50
Q

TD - define fidelity of simulation and transfer of training

A

The degree of realism, or the degree of representation of the real task by the simulation. ‘Fidelity’ of the training task , and this increases with the degree of similarity (in terms of the representation of the behaviours called for) to the actual task.

51
Q

TD- why is physical fidelity not off

A

Physical fidelity is not enough: it does not guarantee psychological fidelity. Low cost simulation will provide better transfer than costly devices if the latter have low psychological fidelity. See Miller’s hypothetical relationship between cost and transfer of training.

52
Q

TD - what should be used to assess simulation

A

The stimulus (cues and so on) and response components of the training task (simulation) should be analysed with respect to how well they transfer to the transfer (actual) task. Need for Transfer of Training.

53
Q

TD - define positive transfer of training

A

Positive transfer is when the existence of a skill (say, that learned on the training task) facilitates the operation of a new one (say, the actual task for which the trainee is being trained).

54
Q

TD - define negative transfer of training

A

Negative transfer occurs when previous learning interferes with learning a new one. The original and transfer task must be similar, with respect to stimulus, operations performed, and response, for transfer to occur.

55
Q

TE- what are the ways of assessing whether training is successfuls

A

using the CIRO
RBLR
Internal and external validity

56
Q

TE - who invented the CIRO

A

Warr 970

57
Q

TE- what are the elements of the CIRO

A

Context (is this what we should be doing?)

Input (could we use better training methods/resources next time?)

Reaction (what did the trainees think of the training?)

Output (was the training valid?)

58
Q

TE - who invented the RBLR

A

Kirkpatrick, 1987

59
Q

TE - define internal validity

A

did the training meet the objectives set? If not, why?

Teaching methods? Programme design ? etc

60
Q

TE - what are the concepts of the RBLR

A

Reaction - as above

Behaviour - does this change post-training. Transfer aspects.

Learning - what was intended

Results - measures of learning/organisational impact

61
Q

TE - Define external validity

A
  • external validity:- is the training, albeit successfully meeting its objectives, actually relevant and applicable to the actual task. If not, why?

Task analysis? Training Objectives? Training Content ? etc.

External validity includes consideration of ‘transfer’ of learning. Any ‘Off the Job’ training must be such that ‘positive transfer’ occurs.

occupational (3 decks)

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