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Biomedicine > Lecture 9 - The endocrine system > Flashcards

Lecture 9 - The endocrine system Flashcards

1
Q

What stimulates the production of thyroid hormones? (6)

A

TSH, exercise, stress, malnutrition, insulin & growth hormone.

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2
Q

Define ‘metabolic rate’.

A

The sum of all chemical processes in our cells.

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3
Q

What reduces thyroid hormones in the body?

A

Low TSH, high T3

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4
Q

Which gland in the body produces melatonin?

A

Pineal gland

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5
Q

Describe the main function of the endocrine system.

A

The endocrine system coordinates the activity of organs through hormones (chemical messengers released into the blood by glands that produce them).

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6
Q

Name 4 endocrine tissues. (7)

A
  1. Adipose tissue
  2. Heart
  3. GIT
  4. Liver
  5. Kidneys
  6. Skin
  7. Placenta
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7
Q

Name 2 ways in which hormone secretion is regulated (3)

A
  1. Nervous system signals
  2. Chemical changes in the blood
  3. Other hormones
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8
Q

Explain how the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland are connected.

A

The anterior lobe of the pituitary is connected to the hypothalamus through a network of blood capillaries while the posterior lobe is connected through a stalk of nerve fibres.

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9
Q

What is Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis?

A

An autoimmune condition of thyroid hormone deficiency caused by the body’s immune system attacking the thyroid

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10
Q

List four key symptoms of Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis

A

Tiredness, Weight gain, Constipation, Depression, Cold intolerance

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11
Q

What would you expect blood tests to reveal in Hashimoto’s?

A

High TSH

Low thyroid hormones (T4 and T3)

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12
Q

Name four nutrients that are essential for the synthesis of thyroid hormones

A

Iodine
Selenium
Tyrosine
Zinc

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13
Q

What are two signs of hypothyroidism?

A

Goitre
Myxoedema
Loss of eyebrows
Thin hair
Dry, brittle skin

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14
Q

Describe ‘down regulation’ and name one example

A

Down regulation occurs if a hormone is present in excess. This means that the number of target cell receptors for that hormone may decrease. An example of this is the hormones that increase during puberty.

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14
Q

Describe ‘up regulation’ and name one example

A

A deficiency in a certain hormone causes an increase in the number of receptors on target cells. This occurs when there is an increased number of oxytocin receptors in third trimester of pregnancy.

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15
Q

Name two endocrine glands (3)

A
  • Pituitary
  • Thyroid
  • Adrenals
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16
Q

Explain the difference between receptors for protein-based hormones and lipid hormones.

A

The receptors for protein-based hormones are part of the cell membrane, whilst lipid hormone receptors are within the cell.

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17
Q

With regards to hormones released from the hypothalamus, name:

a. Three releasing hormones
b. Two inhibiting hormones

A

a. GHRH (Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone)
TRH (Thyroid Releasing Hormone)
PRH (Prolactin Releasing Hormone)
GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone)
CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone)

b. GHIH (Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone)
PIH (Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone)

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18
Q

Name one hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the release of both ACTH and MSH.

A

CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone)

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19
Q

Name one hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the release of both ACTH and MSH.

A

CRH (Corticotropin Releasing Hormone)

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20
Q

Name two functions for each of the following anterior pituitary hormones:

a. Growth Hormone
b. ACTH
c. Prolactin

A

a. Growth Hormone: Growth and Repair; Metabolism
b. ACTH: Circadian Rhythm; Steroid hormone output
c. Prolactin: Milk production (with oxytocin); prevents pregnancy; breast maturation

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21
Q

Name two factors that stimulate the production of the following hormones:

a. Growth Hormone
b. ACTH
c. Prolactin (not birth)

A

a. Growth Hormone: Night time, hypoglycaemia, exercise, childhood/adolescence
b. ACTH: hypoglycaemia, exercise, stressors (eg. emotions, fever), interleukin-1 (an inflammatory cytokine)
c. Prolactin: suckling of infant, sleep

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22
Q

When are TSH levels at their

(a) Lowest
(b) Highest

A

(a) During early evening

(b) During the night

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23
Q

Name one function of melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

A

It plays a role in skin, hair and eye pigmentation

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24
Name TWO functions of oxytocin
- It contracts the uterus in childbirth - It contracts the lactating breast - It is a bonding hormone (mother with baby, social bonding, trust, skin contact, ‘cuddle hormone’).
25
List TWO factors (not suckling) that stimulate oxytocin production
- Childbirth - Skin-to-skin contact/cuddles
26
What is colostrum?
The first breast fluid produced after parturition, which contains water, lacto-sugar and antibodies
27
Describe the main function of colostrum
Colostrum acts as a laxative to encourage bowel movement, particularly bilirubin and wastes that have accumulated in the foetal intestines.
28
Describe how ADH prevents loss of fluid from the body
ADH reduces urine output by stimulating the reabsorption of water from the kidneys and vasoconstriction in the skin lowers loss of water through sweating.
29
Name ONE factor that: a. Stimulates production of ADH b. Inhibits production of ADH
a. Increased osmotic pressure, hypovolaemia b. Reduced osmotic pressure, alcohol, increased fluid intake
29
Using definitions, explain the difference between acromegaly and gigantism
Acromegaly is the result of excess growth hormone post-puberty while Gigantism is an excess of growth hormone while the bones are still developing (pre-puberty onwards)
30
List TWO signs/symptoms of acromegaly
- Large, prominent facial features, large hands and feet - Tiredness - Deep voice - Impotence - Joint pain - Bone deformities - Soft-tissue swellings
31
Explain why Type 2 diabetes is a potential complication of acromegaly and gigantism
Excess growth hormone leads to increased blood glucose levels which can lead to insulin resistance
32
Name the following pathology and list ONE cause: “Galactorrhoea, amenorrhoea, decreased libido / sexual dysfunction and sub-fertility”
Hyperprolactinaemia. Pituitary tumour, acromegaly, pharmacologic (antipsychotics)
33
What is meant by galactorrhoea?
The flow of milk from the breast is not associated with childbirth.
34
Using definitions describe the difference between diabetes insipidus and Type 2 diabetes
Diabetes insipidus is the deficiency of ADH production or recognition, causing the kidneys to over-excrete water. Type 2 diabetes is a metabolic disorder associated with hyperglycaemia, characterised by a deficiency of insulin due to insulin resistance.
35
Name TWO signs/symptoms of diabetes insipidus
- Polydipsia (extreme thirst), high water consumption - Polyuria (excessive urine output) - Weight loss - Low blood pressure, syncope
36
List TWO causes of diabetes insipidus
- Cranial: brain trauma, tumour, encephalitis - Renal: Chronic kidney disease, hypercalcaemia, hypokalaemia
37
With regards to diagnostic tests for diabetes insipidus, describe what you would expect to find with: a. Urine volume over 24 hours b. Urine concentration (urine specific gravity) c. Sodium levels (blood biochemistry)
a. Higher than normal volume b. Low, urine being more diluted than normal c. High sodium levels in urine
38
State which gland produces melatonin
Pituitary gland
39
Name TWO factors that reduce melatonin levels
Daylight Irregular sleep patterns (night shifts)
40
Describe how age affects melatonin levels
Melatonin levels decline with age
41
Name ONE factor that stimulates melatonin
Darkness
42
State TWO functions of melatonin
- Sets the circadian rhythm - Potent antioxidant
43
With regards to iodine atoms, describe the difference between thyroxine and triiodothyronine
Thyroxine has four iodine atoms while triiodothyronine has three iodine atoms
44
Name the thyroid cell which store the following: a. Iodine b. Calcitonin
a. Follicular cells b. Parafollicular cells
45
Describe how thyroid hormones are measured
Thyroid hormone levels are measured in terms of free T4 and T3
45
Name TWO minerals which are essential for the conversion of T4 to T3
Selenium and Zinc
45
Name ONE amino acid needed for the production of thyroid hormones
Tyrosine
45
State TWO functions of thyroid hormones
- Thyroid hormones increase metabolic rate and heat production. - They are essential for normal growth and development as well as CNS function. - They work in conjunction with adrenaline, noradrenaline, insulin and growth hormone.
45
Name the most biologically active thyroid hormone
T3 (Triiodothyronine)
46
List TWO factors that: a. Stimulate thyroid hormone production b. Reduce thyroid hormone production
a. TSH; exercise; stress; malnutrition; low blood glucose; low T3 to T4 b. Low TSH; high T3
47
Name ONE antibody used to identify autoimmune thyroid disease
Anti-thyroglobulin antibodies (TgAb)
48
Explain why TSH levels are measured in the morning
TSH levels are measured in the morning as it is the highest and most reliable/consistent value.
49
List TWO signs of hypothyroidism
Goitre Myxoedema Dry, brittle skin Thin hair Loss of eyebrows
50
List FOUR symptoms of hypothyroidism
Tiredness Malaise Weight gain Cold intolerance Constipation Depression
51
Name TWO causes of hypothyroidism
- Hashimoto’s thyroiditis (autoimmune) - Iodine deficiency - Fluoride - Thyroid destruction (surgery, radioactive iodine, tumour, medications)
52
Define Grave’s disease
Grave’s is hyperthyroidism and is characterised by hyper-metabolism and elevated serum levels of free thyroid hormones (also known as thyrotoxicosis).
53
Describe the pathophysiology of Grave’s disease
Increased IgG antibodies bind to TSH receptors and stimulate the production of thyroid hormones.
54
List FOUR signs/symptoms of Grave’s disease
Nervousness Irritability Hyperactivity Unexplained weight loss Muscle weakness Heat sensitivity Goitre Exophthalmos
55
Describe in detail how blood calcium levels are affected by the following hormones: a. Calcitonin b. Parathyroid hormone
a. Produced by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland and lowers blood calcium by inhibiting calcium reabsorption from the bone and kidneys and inhibiting osteoclast activity. b. Produced by the parathyroid and increases blood calcium by increasing osteoclast activity, increasing kidney reabsorption of calcium and magnesium and increasing production of calcitriol which increases calcium absorption in the GIT.
56
Name TWO signs/symptoms of hyperparathyroidism
Hypercalcaemia (risk of kidney stones, osteoporosis or osteopenia, low energy and depression) Nausea, vomiting, constipation, anorexia, muscle paralysis
57
Name TWO hormones produced by the adrenal cortex
Cortisol (a glucocorticoid) Aldosterone (a mineralocorticoid) Androgen (sex hormone)
57
Name TWO signs/symptoms of hypoparathyroidism
Hypocalcaemia (muscle cramps and spasms, tingling lips, fingers and toes, dry hair, brittle nails, dry scaly skin, cataracts, weakened tooth enamel in children)
58
State the main function of adrenaline and noradrenaline
Both adrenaline and noradrenaline intensify the sympathetic response.
59
Name TWO factors that stimulate adrenaline and noradrenaline
Exercise Fasting Shock Elevated temperature Emotional stress Caffeine Infection Disease
60
Name TWO factors that inhibit adrenaline and noradrenaline
Eating Sleeping Calmness Diaphragmatic breating
61
Name FOUR functions of cortisol
1. Stimulates gluconeogenesis 2. Proteolysis (amino acids from protein) 3. Lipolysis 4. Production of glucose by the liver 5. Reduces immune response and tissue repair 6. Anti-inflammatory 7. Weak reabsorption of sodium and water from the kidney
62
State TWO functions of aldosterone
Maintains the water and electrolyte balance by: 1. Stimulating reabsorption of sodium in the kidneys 2. Causing retention of water in the kidneys to increase blood volume and pressure 3. Stimulating excretion of potassium in urine
63
Name ONE factor that stimulates aldosterone production
- Low blood pressure or blood volume - High blood potassium
64
Name ONE factor that inhibits aldosterone production
Low blood potassium
65
Using definitions, explain the difference between Cushing’s syndrome and Addison’s disease
Cushing’s syndrome is an excessive amount of glucocorticoids (hypercortisolaemia) Addison’s disease is due to hypo-functioning of the adrenal cortex, causing a deficiency of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids.
66
List THREE signs/symptoms of Cushing’s syndrome
- Central weight gain - Moon face - Buffalo hump - Insulin resistance - Abdominal stretch marks - Easy bruising
67
Name TWO causes of Cushing’s syndrome
1- Corticosteroid therapy 2- Adrenal adenoma 3- Pituitary adenoma (Cushing’s disease)
68
List ONE cause of Addison’s disease
- Atrophy of the adrenal glands (85% autoimmune) - Secondary to a disease or abrupt cessation of steroids
69
List TWO signs/symptoms (not skin pigmentation) of Addison’s disease
- Weakness - Fatigue - Hypotension - Muscle weakness - Increased thirst - Malaise - Depression - Impotence/amenorrhoea
70
Explain why hyperpigmentation occurs in Addison’s disease
Adrenal failure leads to a lack of adrenal hormone production and a breakdown of the normal negative feedback mechanism. The hypothalamus produces an excess of corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH), which causes the pituitary to erroneously produce melanocyte-stimulating hormone which causes the skin to darken.
71
Explain what is meant by ‘Addison’s crisis’ and name ONE characteristic sign/symptom
A complication of Addison's disease is when the individual has no capacity to cope with stress (e.g./ psychological, infection etc.). - Severe lethargy and low blood pressure (low sodium) - Hypoglycaemic, syncope (fainting) - Severe pain, renal failure, fever
72
Name TWO functions of androgens
1- Production of pubic and axillary hair 2- Growth - increase in muscle mass 3- Converted to testosterone then oestrogen (in females = promotes libido)
73
List ONE factor that stimulates androgen production
ACTH
74
Describe the difference between ‘alpha cells’ and ‘beta cells’ in the pancreas
Alpha cells produce glucagon Beta cells produce insulin
75
State the normal blood glucose range
4-7mmol/L
76
Name TWO functions of insulin
1- managing breakdown of protein and lipids due to changes in fat cells 2- Uptake of amino acids and potassium into the cells that cannot take place in the absence of insulin 3- Manging the excretion of sodium and fluid volume in the urine 4- Enhancing the memory and learning capabilities of the brain
77
Name TWO factors that: a. Stimulate insulin production b. Inhibit insulin production
A1- High blood glucose A2- elevated blood amino acids A3- eating A4- sweet taste (including artificial sweeteners) B1 - Low blood glucose B2- Starvation B3- Glucagon
78
List ONE function of glucagon
Acts on the liver to elevate blood glucose levels
79
Name TWO factors that: a. Stimulate glucagon production b. Inhibit glucagon production
A1 - low blood sugar A2- exercise A3- stress (fight or flight) B1- insulin B2- hyperglycaemia
80
Using definitions compare Type I diabetes with Type 2 diabetes
Type I diabetes refers to an absolute deficiency of insulting causing persistent hyperglycaemia. It is an autoimmune condition Type II diabetes is when cells develop insulin resistance. Glucose cannot enter cells. Hyperglycaemia develops when pancreatic beta cells can long-secrete insulin to compensate for insulin resistance.
81
Name ONE cause of secondary diabetes
1 - Due to certain medications 2 - pancreatitis
82
Which type of diabetes is a woman with gestational diabetes at higher risk of developing post-childbirth?
Type II
83
Name ONE viral cause of Type I diabetes
1- polio 2- rotavirus
83
State TWO dietary causes of Type I diabetes
1 - Infant exposure to dairy products 2 - vitamin D deficiency 3- Omega 3 deficiency 4- early exposure to gluten
84
List THREE signs/symptoms of Type I diabetes
1 - polydipsia (excessive thirst) 2- polyuria (excessive urinationon) 3- polyphagia (excessive appetite) 4- glycosuria (glucose in urine) 5- unexplained weight loss 6- weakness, extreme fatigue and mental status changes 7- blurred vision 8- slow healing of cuts/infections
85
State TWO lifestyle factors that contribute to the development of Type 2 diabetes
1- obesity and weight gain 2- low fibre 3- high glycaemic index (GI) diet (sugar, white rice, white bread) 4- lack of exercise
86
Name TWO diagnostic tests for identifying diabetes mellitus
- fasting/random blood glucose test - oral glucose tolerance test - glycated haemoglobin - urine test (assists diagnosis only)
87
Name THREE complications of diabetes mellitus
1- heart disease, hypertension, hypercholesterolaemia 2- retinopathy 3- nephropathy (diabetic kidney disease) 4- peripheral neuropathy
88
Describe specifically how ketoacidosis develops
When the glucose supply is low or when cells cannot utilise glucose, the mitochondria can use ketones to make energy.
89
Name FOUR signs/symptoms of hypoglycaemia
1- shaking and trembling 2- sweating 3- pins and needles in the lips and tongue 4- extreme hunger and irritability 5- headache 6- slurred speech, confusion, tiredness 7- ketoacidosis and coma

Biomedicine (10 decks)

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