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FP 2 > Lecture 9&10, Chapter 8&9 > Flashcards

Lecture 9&10, Chapter 8&9 Flashcards

1
Q

What was Wittgenstein’s most important contribution

A

He wrote two books, the first of which was on the meaning of language and this book inspired the logical positivism movement

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2
Q

What did the logical positivism movement entail

A

They said that meaningful claims are either empirical or logical in nature, logical claims are verifiable by looking at their form (e.g. logic and maths) and help represent the world, empirical claims are about the world and can be verified by observation, claims that are not verifiable are meaningless

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3
Q

What is sense data

A

data (experiences) that are gained through sensory perception; they are always neutral so that they can serve as a foundation for science

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4
Q

What are 4 problems with logical positivism and explain them

A
  1. Separation of theory and observation: many concepts are open concepts (= concepts of which the meaning can change over time) and many observations are already theory-laden —> we couldn’t make sense of them otherwise
  2. Underdetermination of theory by data: it is assumed that one observation can only lead to one theory, but in practice this is usually not at all the case. To chose between theories scientists use other criteria, which are theoretical themselves
  3. Induction: causality and general statements are excluded because neither are verifiable
  4. Unobservable entities: there are many entities that we cannot observe (e.g. bc they are very small) but we know of their existence. Does that mean they are not part of science? And what if we create better instruments so that we can see them, do they then become part of science? —> inconsistency
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5
Q

What was the Wiener Kreis

A

Scientists that started the logical positivism movement

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6
Q

What is the world according to the tractatus (Wittgenstein’s book)

A

The world is the totality of facts, and a fact is a state of affairs

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7
Q

What is logical atomism

A

Elementary facts are indivisible and independent of each other

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8
Q

What is constituents

A

Complex facts that are a combination of elementary facts

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9
Q

Picture theory of truth

A

If the state of affairs “depicted” by the thought does occur, then the thought is true

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10
Q

What is the sayable

A

The sayable is everything that is meaningful (= statements or thoughts that are about a state of affairs), truth of the statement is independent of this

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11
Q

Does logical positivism build on the traditions of empiricism of rationalism

A

Empiricism

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12
Q

How did Adler influence Popper

A

Adler had a theory about inferiority and would change his theory to fit basically every observation, this was not right according to popper

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13
Q

What was the school of thought associated with Popper

A

Falsificationism

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14
Q

What was Popper’s solution to the induction problem

A

Deduction - he said that theories can be used to derive predictions about observations

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15
Q

How are theories constructed according to Popper and what happens to them

A

Theories emerge from the mind in a creative act (it doesn’t matter how they arise) and then predictions are derived from it, these are tested on the basis of observation and if the observation proves the theory wrong, the theory is refuted

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16
Q

Explain the hypothetico-deductive model

A

Start with a theory, deduce predictions from theory, test predictions, if predictions don’t come true; falsify the theory —> if they do come true; corroboration (not verification)

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17
Q

What is the context of discovery (popper)

A

The fact that there is no logic for theory development

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18
Q

what is the context of justification (popper)

A

Strict rules for the logic of testing; modus tollens

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19
Q

What is popper’s view called and why (choose from rationalism, empiricism, idealism etc)

A

Critical rationalism, because he does consider ratio to be fallible

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20
Q

What did Popper propose as the demarcation criterion for whether something is science or not

A

The falsification criterion

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21
Q

What two things influence a theories’ degree of falsifiability

A

Precision and generality

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22
Q

What are 5 problems with Popper and falsification

A
  1. There is no distinction between better supported and less supported theories, theories are at best ‘not yet refuted’
  2. No knowledge on how to build theories
  3. Hard falsification is difficult (Duhem-Quine Problem): if a prediction doesn’t come true it could be because of the theory but it could also be because something else is wrong - theory is never tested in isolation so can not be rejected in isolation)
  4. Very counterintuitive for scientists to want to falsify their own theories, goes against confirmation bias
  5. Popper said he had a normative theory, but it does not describe examples of what we consider scientific success if we look at history
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23
Q

What are the 5 stages of science according to Kuhn and explain them

A
  1. Pre-science: no consensus within field, little progress, lack of specialized community
  2. Normal science: no novelties, not very experimental, expand current paradigm
  3. Anomalies and crisis: new findings make current paradigm unfit
  4. Revolution: shift from degenerative to progressive research model
  5. Normal science 2: new stage of normal science after a paradigm shift
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24
Q

What was feyerabend’s most important contribution

A

Its essential for scientific progress that anything is permitted, denied the existence of methodological guidelines

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25
Q

What are the 4 ways of gathering knowledge according to Pierce

A
  1. Method of tenacity - assumptions and beliefs people hold because they have been around for a long time
  2. Method of authority - opinions formed on the basis of consulting experts
  3. A priori method - using personal reason and logic to reach conclusions; deductive reasoning but also intuitive knowledge
  4. Scientific method
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26
Q

What were the 3 criteria for a good counselor (Rogers)

A
  1. Unconditional positive regard
  2. Empathetic understanding
  3. Congruence
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27
Q

What are 3 major developments after WW-2

A
  1. Antipsychiatry and the antipsychiatric movement
  2. Input from science
  3. Availability of medicines for mental disorders
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28
Q

What 3 types of situations were tests most used for

A
  • authenticity tests
  • qualifying tests
  • diagnostic tests
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29
Q

What were 2 criteria to distinguish good tests from bad tests

A

Reliability and validity

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30
Q

What were the 3 movements in work and organizational psychology

A

Industrial psychology, human relations movement and human resource management

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31
Q

Clinical psychology

A

branch of psychology applying psychological knowledge to the assessment and treatment of mental disorders

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32
Q

Shell shock

A

anxiety response on battlefield that prevents soldiers from functioning properly; was one of the first topics addressed by applied psychology

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33
Q

Antipsychiatry movement

A

a pressure group started in the 1960s that called into question the usefulness of the prevailing psychiatric treatments

34
Q

Efficacy of therapies

A

Measure to indicate how much improvement a therapy brings to patients

35
Q

Psychoactive drugs

A

Medicines prescribed for mental disorders

36
Q

Social management

A

management and control of deviant individuals and individuals in need by official social services

37
Q

Welfare state

A

socio-political system in which individuals insure themselves against setbacks via taxes, which are used by the state to provide welfare services

38
Q

Authenticity test

A

test to determine whether a person is who he/she pretends to be and to ascertain guilt or innocence

39
Q

Qualifying test

A

Test to find the best person for a task

40
Q

diagnostic tests

A

Tests to determine which condition a person has

41
Q

Reliability

A

in test research, the degree to which the outcome of a test is the same if the test is repeated under unchanged circumstances or if an equivalent test is used

42
Q

Validity

A

in test research, the degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure; determined by correlating the test results with an external criterion

43
Q

Implicit personality theory

A

mixture of stereotypes and individuating information about the associations of personal characteristics that people use to make predictions about how others will behave in social relations

44
Q

Structured interview

A

Interview in which all interviewees receive the same set questions

45
Q

standardized psychological test

A

test that psychologists have examined for reliability and validity, for which they have information about the expected performance, and which is administered in a uniform way

46
Q

IQ test

A

test which is supposed to measure the intelligence of a person; focuses on learning potential; results correlate with school performance and suitability for intellectually demanding occupations

47
Q

Achievement test

A

standardised test which measures the knowledge of a particular topic or set of topics

48
Q

Personality test

A

test to measure relatively stable and distinctive patterns of behaviour that characterise individuals and their reactions to the environment

49
Q

Face validity

A

estimating the validity of a test by estimating to what extent the items of the test agree with one’s own beliefs; is not evidence-based

50
Q

Social desirability

A

bias people have to present themselves in a manner they think will be viewed favourably by others

51
Q

Personality trait

A

basic dimension used to describe differences in personality between people; is often bipolar with opposites at the extremes (e.g. introvert vs. extrovert)

52
Q

Industrial psychology (who?)

A

first theory about how work should be organised; strongly influenced by Taylor’s scientific management: employees were the hands of the company that would accept any work if remunerated enough; tasks had to be made simple so that everyone could do them without much practice

53
Q

Human relations movement

A

second main theory of how work should be organised; stressed the humanity of the employees and the importance of social relations

54
Q

Human resource management

A

third main theory of how work should be organised; stressed the desire for self-actualisation in employees; employees will perform best if given autonomy and authority

55
Q

Correspondence theory of truth

A

a statement is true when it corresponds with reality. Assumes that there is a physical reality which has priority and which the human mind tries to understand. First formulated by Aristotle

56
Q

Skepticism

A

philosophical view that does not deny the existence of a physical reality, but denies that humans can have reliable knowledge of it; first formulated by Pyrrho of Ellis

57
Q

Demarcation

A

setting and marking the boundaries of a concept

58
Q

Philosophy of science

A

branch of philosophy that studies the foundations of scientific research, to better understand the position of scientific research relative to other forms of information acquisition and generation

59
Q

Falsificationism

A

View within the philosophy of science that statements are scientific only if they can be falsified empirically

60
Q

Ad hoc modifications

A

modifications to a theory that according to Popper make the theory less falsifiable; decrease the scientific value of the theory

61
Q

Paradigm

A

notion introduced by Kuhn to refer to the fact that scientists share a set of common views of what the discipline is about and how problems must be investigated

62
Q

Degenerative research programme

A

notion introduced by Lakatos to indicate a paradigm that does not allow researchers to make new predictions and that requires an increasing number of ad hoc modifications to account for the empirical findings

63
Q

Progressive research programme

A

notion introduced by Lakatos to indicate a paradigm that allows researchers to make new, hitherto unexpected predictions that can be tested empirically

64
Q

Realism

A

view within philosophy that human knowledge tries to reveal real things in the world; the truth of knowledge is determined by the correspondence of the knowledge with the real world

65
Q

Idealism

A

view within philosophy that human knowledge is a construction of the mind and does not necessarily correspond to an outside world; the truth of knowledge depends on coherence with the rest of the knowledge in the social group

66
Q

Postmodernist

A

in the philosophy of science, someone who questions the special status of science and sees scientific explanations as stories told by a particular group of scientists

67
Q

Social construction

A

notion used by postmodernists to indicate that scientific knowledge is not objective knowledge discovering the workings of an external reality, but a story told by a particular scientific community on the basis of its language and culture

68
Q

Science wars

A

notion used by the postmodernists to refer to their attacks against the special status of science and their unmasking of scientific knowledge as a social construction

69
Q

What is pragmatism and who coined the term

A

view within philosophy that human knowledge is information about how to cope with the world; the truth of knowledge depends on the success one has in engaging with the world, on what works; truth of a question or theory is only relevant if it makes a practical difference —> Pierce

70
Q

Observation sentences

A

Sentences that directly describe reality

71
Q

Correspondence rules

A

They are rules that link the observational sentences to theoretical vocabulary (e.g. observational sentence = a person answered yes to the question if they have been very sad in the last two weeks, theoretical vocabulary = if a person answered yes to this and 5 other questions they are clinically depressed)

72
Q

What are open concepts and who coined the term

A

Concepts of which the meaning can change over time, Arthur Pap

73
Q

Does falsificationism build on the principles of rationalism or empiricism

A

Rationalism

74
Q

What is incommensurability

A

The fact that Kuhn says that two paradigms cannot be compared to each other because they are so vastly different in the language and concepts that they use

75
Q

What are auxiliary assumptions

A

Body of beliefs that help the theory

76
Q

In reaction to the auxiliary assumptions you can either have negative or positive heuristics, what does this mean

A

Negative: you cannot revisit the core
Positive: some adjustments to protect the hard core are okay

77
Q

What was bacons relevant contribution to these subjects

A

He was one of the first to promote observation and experimentation to acquire knowledge, instead of just relying on tradition and authority

78
Q

What was Whewell’s most important contribution

A

He also acknowledged that hypotheses were possibly wrong conjectures

79
Q

What were the 3 basic conditions for tests according to Hanson

A
  1. A test contains the condition of intent: tests are planned, arranged and given by someone with a purpose in mind; they are never random events.
  2. A test is not administered to collect information about performance on the test itself, but as an indication of some other condition: for instance, uroscopy was not meant to collect information about the urine, but to make statements about possible illnesses in the person.
  3. A test involves a difference in status between the test giver and the test taker: the test giver draws conclusions on the basis of the test which the test taker has to undergo.
80
Q

What are 5 characteristics of science (other demarcations criteria)

A
  1. Systematicity and cumulativeness of knowledge
  2. Use of well-defined methods
  3. Clarity (= findings should be stated in a way that they’re always interpreted the same)
  4. Prediction
  5. Knowledge is revisable

FP 2 (3 decks)

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