Lecture 7 - Principles Flashcards
What are the basic principles in how attitudes are shaped?
- The principles are broad themes that cut across CAB component and attitude shaping
- These principles are not laws of attitude chnage and formation, nor are they completely correct or valid under all circumstances BUT can be considereduseful guidelines in uunderstanding basic processes in attitude change
Attitude shaping
How attitudes towards new things are formed and how exisiting attitudes might change
What are the Principles?
Principle 1 - Attitudes can be infleuenced by information that has weak relevance to the attitude object
Principle 2 - The impact of weak information can be reduced by the motivation and ability to possess a correct attitude
Principle 3 - Attitude chnage in partilly dependent upon how persuasive messages match aspects of the recipient
Principle 4 - Attitude chnage can occur without conscious awareness
Principle 1
- Attitudes can be influenced by information that has weak relevance to the attitude object
- Attitudes are often influenced by variables that we would regard as being irrational e.g, Humour, source expertise
- Continuum - from high to low relevance
- ID + cultural differences in what we believe to be relevant information
Do we devote more attention to appeals where characteristics are more similar to ourselves or more different and WHY?
Pelham et al. (2002)
- In general, people have a positive view of themselves + tend to have positive feelings about anything that is loosely associated with themselves – e.g., name letters + birthday number
- We therefore devote more attention to appeals where the objects name has similarities to their own
- a form of implicit egotism or unconscious self enhancement
P1
Howard & Kerin (2011) Principle 1
Study 1: Ps spent more time reading and recalled more information from a persons CV when the target showed the same initials. Ps were more likely to pay attention to information that has similarities to their own name
Study 3: Ps had more favourable attitudes and consumed more of a beverage with enhanced name similarity (‘V Zack family’ - on the drink) when shown two drinks - one showing name similarity, the other not.
P1
Howard and Kerin (2014): What factors might moderate this effect?
These researchers assessed whether this name-similarity effect was stronger among individuals high in self-monitoring.
Results: They found larger effects of this name-similarity effect amongst those high in SM.
P1
Bang et al., (2019)
Looked at name similarity and narcisism.
* Researchers found that those who scored high on a measure of narcisism paid greater attention to ads that had name similarity AND had more favourable attitudes towards attitude objects
P1
What is principle 2
The impact of Weak information can be reduced by the motivation and ability to possess a correct attitude.
How principle links to the cognitive models
This links to ELM model - When individuals are motivated and they have the ability, thay are more likely to focus on the content of a persuasive appeal
This links to the HSM - less relevant information becomes more relevant in presence of contradictory information - effect focused on a source characteristic that has relevance e.g, credibility
This links to the MODE model - suggest that deeper consideration of information may cause relevant information to override the impact of irrelevant information particularly when irrelevant information is difficult to process
Petty, Cacioppo & Goldman (1981)
They provided Ps with persuasive communications about the implementation of oral comprehensive exams.
* Manipulated:
1. Involvement (Oral comprehensive exams NOW or 10 yrs)
2. Source expertise (Carergie commission Vs Grad students)
3. Argument strength (Helps with grades vs to avoid interaction
- Under low involvement (10 yrs), source expertise played a larger role
- Under high involvement (now), people scrutinise the information more carefully, meaning the argument strength has larger impact
Summary: we can overcome these less relevant peices of information when we are motivated and when we have the ability
P2
Principle 3
Attitude change is partially dependent upon how the content of a persuasive message MATCHES aspects of the recipient and/or the recipient’s attitude
Matching in P3 concerns matching things presented to the participant in line with their function and content.
Snyder & DeBono (1985)
Research that looks at attitude FUNCTIONS
They argued that people vary in Self-monitoring, causing attitudes to have different functions between high and low SM:
* High SMs → more likely to hold social adjustive attitudes. Thus, they predicted that high SM would be more persuaded by product IMAGE (e.g. how good something makes you look)
Low SMs → more likely to hold value-expressive attitudes, Thus, they predicted that low SM would be more persuaded by product QUALITY (e.g., how clean shampoo gets your hair)
They assessed Ps on SM. They then showed Ps persuasive appeals about a shampoo that either served social adjustive functions ot value-expressive functions. They then measured Ps attitudes towards these appeals
They found that the impact of an appeal was dependent on whether somone was high or low in SM. The matched appeals to peoples function of their attitude was most persuasive.
P3
Hirsh et al., (2019)
Research that looks at attitude FUNCTIONS
They looked at matching in the context of the big 5 personalities (ENACO). They presented individuals with different types of appeals that focused on different aspects of the big 5: e.g, this phone is super exciting (Extraversion). They then measured people attitudes towards the product
Results - The big 5 predicted effectiveness of each message frame. The big 5 also linked to individual differences in motivation (which impact attitude functions)
FUNCTIONAL MATCHING CAN LEAD TO ENHANCED PERSUASION
P3
Fabrigar & Petty (1999) - Methodoloy only
Research that looks at attitude CONTENT
Phase 1: presnted Ps +ve affective or +ve cognitive information about the ‘Lemphur’.
Phase 2: presented Ps -ve affective or -ve cognitive information about the ‘Lemphur’
Conditions
1. affective +ve, affective -ve
2. affective +ve, cognitive -ve - MISMATCH of CONTENT
3. cognitive +ve, cognitive -ve
4. cognitive +ve, affective -ve - MISMATCH of CONTENT
In phase 1, they formed an attitude based on either cognitive or affective info. In phase 2, they want to see if a matched or unmatched appeal leads to attitude change
P3
Fabrigar & Petty (1999) - Results only
They found an interaction - an appeal that matched the basis of a persons attitude was more effective in changing attitudes.
- However, researchers gave these Ps attitudes (fabricated attitudes)
P3
Need for affect
This is individual differences in the motivation to approach or avoid situations that induce emotions (maio et al., 2001)
Need for cognition
This is individual differences in the general tendancy to engage in and enjoy effrtful cognitive activity (cacioppo & Petty, 1982)
Haddock et al., (2008)
The effect of individual differences when matching th CONTENT of a message
Assessed Ps in terms of NFA and NFC
- they gave Ps either +ve affective infomration about the lemphur OR +ve cognitive information about the lemphur
- People were then asked their attitude towards the lemphur
Results:
* NFA scores only - individual high in NFA showed more +ve attitudes after reading the +ve affective appeal. Cognitive appeals had no impact on these individuals
* NFC scores only - individuals high in NFC showed more +ve attitudes after reading the +ve cognitive appeal. Affective appeals had no impact on these individuals
P3
Why are matched content more successful/what underlies these effects?
The ELM: people pay more attention to something that matches aspects of themselves
Haddock et al., (2008) - follow up study
Evidence for the reason of the matching effect being due to the ELM:
Initial Phase - measured NFA and NFC scores, then gave people affective or cognitive information about the lemphur (random assignment)
Test phase - They gave Ps an incidental test. Test was based on the content of the passage (12 MCQs).
The idea behind this was that if people are reading the information more carefully (when it matched their content), they should perform better on the incidental test.
Results:
- those high in NFA scores remembered more content from the affective based appeal.
- those high in NFC scores remembered more content from the cognitive based appeal
People devoted more attention to information that speaks their language
P3
Petty & Wegener (1998)
These researchers looked at argument quality in the context of attitude FUNCTIONS - looking at how arguments that are weak or strong impact attitudes, depending on whether the arguments match the functions of a persons attitude.
Ps were given a persuasive appeal that either matched the base of their function of an attitude or didnt, and contained weak or strong arguments.
Results - the effect of the strength of the message was stronger when there was a match, compared to when there was a mismatch
P3
Aquino et al., (2020)
They found that the brain activity was more strongly activated when persuasive content linked to/matched the recipients individual affective or cognitive orientation. specifically the vmPFC, posterior cingulate cortec and cerebellum were more activated.
P3
Aquino, Haddock & Maio (2016) - Methodology only
Matching effects on person perception:
* They were interested in looking at whether individual differences in NFA and NFC might be linked with how we evaluate other people.
They looked at two key dimensions of person perception (derived from the stereotype content model)
- WARMTH: can draw links between warmth and affect
- COMPETENCE: can draw linkes between competence and cognition
Ps learned aboout 4 different people described as either warm or cold, competent or incompetent
Ps were then sked about how much they liked each individual
P3
Aquino, Haddock & Maio (2016) - Findings only
Higher NFA = higher like of someone who is warm
Higher NFC = higher like of somone who is competent
NFA + Warm person = .28 *
NFA + Competent person = -.00
NFC + Competent person = .19 *
NFC + Warm person = -.04
P3
Kaptein et al., (2012)
Matching effects outside of the lab - trying to see if online messaging could infleunce peoples dietry behaviours
* volunteers provided information about their suseptibility to different types of influence. Ps were sent different types of text messages as reminders about reducing their snacking behaviour. These text messages either matched or mismatched their perceptions of suseptibility.
Results - matched text messaged were successful in reducing snacking behaviour
P3
Matz et al., (2017)
Matching effects outside of the lab - online usage to infer traits
* They used online usage (browsing history, blog posts, twitter posts, facebook likes etc.) to make inferences about individuals traits.
* Ads were then purposely placed on their facebook page that either matched or mismatched their status on this personality attribute.
Results - 50% were more likely to purchase the advertised product online when messages matched the Ps personality attributes inferred from online usage
P3
What is Principle 4?
Attitude chnage can occur without conscious awareness
What is subliminal priming?
This is when attitude chnage can occur without conscious awareness
* Subliminal priming takes place when there is a relevant goal we are motivated to persue
P4
Straham, Spencer & Zanna (2002)
After having avoided food and drink for 3 hours before an experiment, all participants completed a taste test on 2 types of cookies. Some were offered water + others were not. Then shown quick subminimal flashes of either thirst-related or neutral words.
Results:
* Thirsty participants who had also been primed with thirst-related words drank significantly more than all other participants
* This is consistent with subliminal priming having an effect when a relevant goal is present that we are motivated to reduce
P4
Karremans, Stroebe & Claus (2006)
Similar to cookie study, they made people in need of a drink or not (relevant goal). They primed a particular brand of beverage (Lipton Tea). They then assessed the type of liquid drank at the end of the experiment (between lipton tea and spa road). They also assessed if Ps then bought Lipton tea over Spa road beverage
Results
* in both DV’s, there was an interaction: WHEN people were thirsty, the subliminal priming increased the drank chosen to drink at the end of the experiment (Lipton tea), and the bought drink (Lipton tea).
How can you eliminate the effects of subliminal priming?
- When people have anhabitual brand preference, the effect is eliminated
- Forewarning Ps eliminates the effects (Vermigweren et al., 2001, 2013)
