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Introduction to Biological and Cognitive Psychology > Lecture 7: Memory > Flashcards

Lecture 7: Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What does Gazzaniga describe memory as?

A

“everything in life is memory, save for the thin edge of the present…”

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2
Q

What does the modal model of memory represent?

A

The assumptions most researchers hold about the structure of memory and the relationships between sub-components.

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3
Q

What are the key parts of the modal model of memory?

A

1) Input
2) Sensory Memory (attention)
3) Short term memory (rehearsal+output)
4) Long term memory (Schemata)

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4
Q

Why can we not remember 100 digits of pi?

A
  • There is a constant battle between the past and present at input.
  • There are limits to how much information we can retain even with rehearsal.
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5
Q

Why can Clive not remember beyond 7 seconds ago?

A

Clive cannot generate new long-term memories.

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6
Q

What is visual sensory memory also known as and what is its retention period?

A

Iconic memory

About 1.5 seconds

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7
Q

What is auditory sensory memory also known as and what is its retention period?

A

Echoic memory

About 2.5 seconds

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8
Q

What is an advantage of both visual and auditory sensory memory?

A

They have massive reception capabilities.

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9
Q

What is a disadvantage of both visual and auditory sensory memory?

A

They have incredibly short retention periods due to constant updating.

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10
Q

What are the minor senses?

A

Taste
Touch
Smell

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11
Q

What do the minor senses also allow for?

A

The fleeting retention of unprocessed raw information.

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12
Q

What does the act of attention allow for in sensory memory?

A

It allows certain information to enter into STM.

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13
Q

What is found only at a sensory memory level?

A

Anything like raw unprocessed sensory material.

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14
Q

What differentiates sensory memory from STM and LTM?

A

From STM onwards, ‘we’ play a major role in memory.

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15
Q

What transformation takes place between sensory memory and STM?

A

Coding takes place in which pictures can transform into words, or words into sound etc, as the output.

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16
Q

What is the type of error in the coding of sensory memory to STM influenced by?

A

The type of rehearsal.
Visual rehearsal=visual errors
Verbal rehearsal=verbal errors (rhyme)

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17
Q

What does Miller (1956) have to do with STM?

A
  • The size of the STM has a number attributed to it.
  • Magic number: 7 (+/-2)
  • Controversy surrounds this number and how the unit of STM should be best described.
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18
Q

What is chunking?

A

(or grouping).

Chunking information together=increase in the amount of information that can be placed within the STM unit.

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19
Q

What is necessary to remember when chunking information and how is this supported?

A

The chunks have to be meaningful.

  • Chase and Simon (1973)
  • Expert chess players could remember significantly more board configurations than novices, ONLY when the composition was lawful.
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20
Q

What happens of we neglect to rehearse something?

A

It will become inaccessible.

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21
Q

What is one principle related to memory loss in STM?

A

Without rehearsal, memory decays.

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22
Q

What did Ebbinghaus discover about memory loss?

A

He found that the savings on relearning an original list decreased with time.

  • After about 50 hours, memory did not get any worse.
  • Therefore memory decays but also leaves some detritus.
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23
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

Old information getting in the way of new information.

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24
Q

What is interference?

A

Information interferes with one another if learnt over the same short time period and if it is similar in nature.

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25
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

New information getting in the way of old information.

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26
Q

How do decay and interference interact?

A

More decay allows for more interference in STM.

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27
Q

What is the Primacy Effect?

A

Improved recall for words at the beginning of a list.

-is thought to be due to words entering LTM.

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28
Q

What is the Recency Effect?

A

Improved recall for words at the end of a list.

-is thought to be due to words present in STM.

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29
Q

What is sensory memory?

A

Holds all information for a fraction of a second.

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30
Q

What is short term memory?

A

Holds about 5-7 items for about 15-30 seconds.

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31
Q

What is rehearsal?

A

Helps keep the information circulating in short term memory.

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32
Q

What is long term memory?

A

Holds incredibly large amounts of information for incredibly long period of time and possibly indefinitely.

33
Q

What is output?

A

It is from STM alone or from longer-term information placed in STM.

34
Q

What does interaction have to do with improving memory?

A

Bower and Winzenz (1970)
-showed that things are better remembered when interactive mental imagery is produced for them.

e.g. cone and pig (ok)
cone near pig (better)
pig wearing cone (best)

35
Q

What does organisation have to do with improving memory?

A

Bower (1969)

-showed that items are better remembered when they are structured into meaningful groups or hierarchies.

36
Q

What does deeper is better have to do with improving memory?

A

Craik and Lockhart (1972)

-suggest that the more resources employed at encoding, the more likely the material will be remembered at retrieval.

37
Q

What are three levels of encoding?

A

Surface (physical)
Intermediate (phonological)
Deep (semantic)

38
Q

What is maintenance rehearsal?

A
  • Repeating one’s self.

- Unlikely that after output the information the information will be stored in LTM.

39
Q

What is elaborative rehearsal?

A
  • Meaning-based rehearsal
  • e.g. what does it do? what else is it like? what else do I know about this?
  • much more likely to get the information into LTM.
40
Q

What is a second principle related to LTM loss?

A

The idea that we have not ‘lost’ the information, rather we have lost access to the information.

41
Q

What are the two types of recall?

A

1) Free recall: write down as many words as you can.

2) Cued recall: write down as many animals as you can.

42
Q

What is an example of recognition?

A

Tell me whether these words are old or new.

43
Q

What does our environment have to do with memory?

A

Maintaining external environment at study leads to better recall at test.

44
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A

Tulving and Thompson (1973)

  • Helps to explain context-dependent (external) and state-dependent (internal) remebering.
  • Success at retrieval by reinstating the cuses used at encoding.
  • Do what you did at study at test!
45
Q

What is the transfer appropriate hypothesis?

A

Jacoby and Dallas (1981)

  • A more specific definition of state-dependent remembering.
  • Repeating the cognition processes undertaken at encoding at test will help you re-access this information.
46
Q

What are critical lures?

A

Things that lure into shaping a memory a certain way.

47
Q

What is Schemata?

A

Information is shaped and moulded based on expectations.

48
Q

What have classic experiments revealed about reconstructing memory?

A

-revealed severe failures in recognition memory.
-Car example:
change of verb used influences speed judgement.

49
Q

What can misinformation effects in recognition memory also influence?

A
  • The false recall of other events.

- More likely as a result of schema induced by the misleading information.

50
Q

What are flashbulb memories?

A

-thought to be a special class of memory for “shocking, highly charged important events” (Goldstein, 2008, p.243).

51
Q

What is important to remember about flashbulb memories?

A

No matter how emotional or detailed the flashbulb memory seems, it is not resistant to decay and so are not better remembered than other events

52
Q

What could the decaying of flashbulb memories force us to consider?

A

How reliable are eye-witness reports?

53
Q

What are the four scenarios when a witness has to identify a perpetrator in a police line-up?

A

Positive ID+present: Hit (correct ID)
Negative ID+present: Miss (ID failure)
Positive ID+absent: False alarm (incorrect ID)
Negative ID+absent: Correct rejection

54
Q

What are 8 ways to improve line-up identification?

A

1) Inform the witness that the perpetrator might not be in the line-up.
2) Fill the rest of the line-up with similar looking non-perpetrators.
3) Line-ups must be done in sequential rather than simultaneous order.
4) Integrate line-up results with cognitive interview.
5) Encourage but do not prompt information from the witness.
6) Caution the witness against guessing.
7) Avoid giving feedback to the witness after the line-up.
8) Establish a rapport with the witness.

55
Q

How does informing the witness that the perpetrator might not be in the line-up improve line-up identification?

A
  • Witnesses have a bias (increased false alarm) to pick the person closest the the perpetrator.
  • Having them absent reduced false alarm identification by 42%.
56
Q

How does filling the rest of the line-up with similar looking non-perpetrators improve line-up identification?

A

-Although this may seem counter-intuitive, when the perpetrator is absent this reduced the likelihood of false identification (Lindsey and Wells, 1980).

57
Q

How does the line-ups being done in sequential rather than simultaneous order improve line-up identification?

A
  • Simultaneous order encourages relative identification as opposed to absolute identification.
  • This again leads to reduced false identification.
58
Q

How does integrating line-up results with cognitive interview improve line-up recognition?

A

-The cognitive interview in which the witness is encouraged to reinstate context and state, leads to 25-60% more information.

59
Q

How does encouraging but not prompting information from the witness improve line-up identification?

A
  • Try to avoid leading questions and adjectives that influence the details of the memory (crash, smash, etc,)
  • Avoid interruptions.
60
Q

How does cautioning the witness against guessing improve line-up identification?

A
  • The witness may feel more compelled to do so as a result of the power relation.
  • Decreasing the likelihood of a positive ID and reduces false alarms.
61
Q

How does avoiding giving feedback to the witness after the line-up improve line-up identification?

A

-Avoid supporting any belief that the witness has an accurate record of the events or the individuals involved.

62
Q

How does establishing a rapport with the witness improve line-up identification?

A

Witnesses are more likely to invest time and energy (which could be a lot) if their personal needs are met.

63
Q

What are the two types of amnesia?

A

1) Retrograde amnesia

2) Anterograde amnesia

64
Q

What is retrograde amnesia?

A
  • before the event

- graded

65
Q

What is anterograde amnesia?

A
  • after the event

- tends not to be graded

66
Q

What happens to the immediate preceding events after trauma?

A

They are delicate and subject to disruption.

67
Q

What happens to events further back in the past after trauma?

A

They are more likely to have been subjected to long-term potentiation and reactivation.

68
Q

What is synaptic consolidation?

A
  • New memories begin as fragile.
  • As a result of long-term potentiation, neurones sensitive to the incoming stimulus will fire at an increased rate the more the stimulus is repeated.
69
Q

What is systems consolidation and what plays a special role?

A
  • Further increases the robustness of new memories.
  • Initiates slower changes in neural networks.
  • Eventually reorganises neural populations.
  • The hippocampus.
70
Q

What does the hippocampus do in systems consolidation?

A

-reactivates the networks associated with memories such that independent cortical networks are established.

71
Q

When does reactivation occur in systems consolidation?

A

-during sleep, relaxation or conscious rehearsal (Peigneux et al., 2004).

72
Q

What happens when a new memory appears?

A

There is high activity between the hippocampus and cortical areas.

73
Q

What happens when an oldish memory appears?

A

There is moderate activity between the hippocampus and cortical areas.

74
Q

What happens when an old memory appears?

A

There is low activity between the hippocampus and cortical areas.

75
Q

What differentiates sensory memory from short-term memory?

A

Sensory memory: unfiltered data that lasts for seconds only.

STM: limited capacity store that requires rehearsal.

76
Q

How can you improve memory performance?

A

1) Interactive imagery

2) Deep processing.

77
Q

What decreases memory performance?

A

1) Decay
2) Interference
3) Context changes.

78
Q

What does evidence suggest about reconstructing memories?

A

Memory becomes schematic.

-This is particularly important for eye-witness testimony

Introduction to Biological and Cognitive Psychology (8 decks)

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