Lecture 7: Culture and multilingualism Flashcards
multilingualism=
- not just a technical, cognitive task
- emotional, social and cultural significance associated with becoming bilingual
- three dimensions for associations with languages:
1. expertise (degree of proficiency)
2. affiliation (affective relationship)
3. inheritance (membership by birth, family or community with language tradition)
cognitive types of multilingualism
- simultaneous:
- when T1 and T2 go together
- t1 and t2 home naturally (during play)
- level of both are maximal, depending on SES and input
- “balanced bilingual” - successive:
- t2 after t1
- t1 home, t2 school/work
- level t1 maximal, level t2 varies
- “functional bilingual”, but one language is superior to the other and can be domain specific (speaking or reading only, content…)
which language should refugee children use at school
- Good skills in mother tongue helps to learn another language
- Children who are allowed to speak their mother tongue more at school:
-more emotionally connected to school
-more self-confidence - Exposure to target language is important!
- At Home: preference for good ‘different language’ rather than poor target language! => Linguistic Transfer can take place
dus…. at home ‘own’ language -> good skills in own language -> linguistic transfer -> exposure to new language
3 variants of the transferhypothesis
- knowledge transfer (linguistic interdependence hypothesis’, ‘linguistic coding differences hypothesis’)
- metalinguistic transfer, higher order skills (reading strategies) can be transferred from 1st to 2nd language - threshold hypothesis:
- knowledge threshold is needed for higher order skills to transfer (e.g. sufficient vocab in L2).
- use reading strategies from L1 in L2
- good L1 reader = good L2 reader - automaticity hypothesis (transfer facilitation model)
- orthography L1 needs to be similar to L2
- word recognition (decoding skills) L2 is required to be fast and almost automatic (sufficient working memory capacity), past threshold
- good command of L1 skills is needed (e.g. reading strategies, writing strategies)
van gelderen et al
- Do skills transfer from 1st language to second language and when?
- Do multilinguals benefit from the additional language (cognitive flexibility)?
tests:
- Reading skills in L1 (Dutch) and L2 (English)
- Metacognitive knowledge (questionnaire): knowledge of tekst types, reading strategies
- Linguistic knowledge: e.g. Vocabulary, Syntax
- Automaticity/Speed tests: decoding/word recognition and sentence verification
hypotheses:
- Lower order skills: Vocabulary, syntax, word recognition -> language dependent: no transfer expected
- Higher order skills: metacognition, e.g. where can I find important information? -> language independent: possible transfer expected
results:
- No evidence for automaticity theory yet evidence for knowledge transfer from L1 and perhaps threshold
- Lower scores multilinguals: no advantage. may be because the weaker foundation in dutch could limit their ability to transfer reading skills to english
Multilingualism does not automatically lead to better reading skills in English. A strong foundation in the primary language (whether L1 or L2) is crucial before effective transfer to another language can occur (therefore preference for good language rather than poor language!).
Dyslexia and multilingualism (Cline, 2000)
- Aims: fair arrangements for assessment and provision!
- Yet often 2 separate research areas: Dyslexic monolinguals and Multilinguals without Dyslexia
- Additional problem: IQ measured in second language lacks reliability and validity: language proficiency in English is still developing
- IQ is likely to be underestimated: leads to lower incidence of IQ–achievement discrepancies: leads to under-estimation
- 2nd cause for under-estimation: avoidance of IQ testing with bilingual pupils
- Failure to meet specific learning difficulties criteria: deprived of additional resources
hoelang duurt het ongeveer voordat second language developed is
5-7 year period for the development of cognitive–academic language proficiency in an additional language (we often underestimate cognitive skills)
teaching strategies for multilinguals with dyslexia
- evaluate the balance between needs as second language learners and needs as dyslectic people
- needs as second language learners: reading for meaning (texts and vocab)
- specific needs for dyslexia: a programme that addresses the deficit in phonological skills
but not to much focus on b, otherwise exercises do not work when they have limited vocab for example
Cultural differences in a school context:
- 12% non western
- Turkish, Morrocan, Suriname, Caribbean Dutch
- school psychologists notice challenges due to multicultural population: 1) social behaviour due to different values, 2) falling behind in language skills
5 problem areas
- non-verbal communication (other codes, e.g. looking at somebody’s eyes)
- communication style
- group (collectivistic, social cohesion) vs. individual (independence) orientation
- conflicting norms and values (role/position vs. responsibility vs. independence)
- structure in surroundings (home is strong and clear, know your status, whilst school is malleable, express your own views, structure yourself, critical thinking)
communication style differences at home vs. at school
- Implicit Communication at Home:
- common in cultures with hierarchical relationships (e.g., between parents and children)
- status and respect are key, listen to parents without explicit reasoning or debate.
- understanding is often context-based and non-verbal cues (tone, gestures) play a significant role. - Explicit Communication at School:
- the Dutch education system encourages direct communication, where focus is placed on content, reasoning, and argumentation.
- children are expected to explain why they believe something and to support their opinions with logical arguments.
- feelings and perspectives are openly discussed, and questioning authority (e.g., teachers or parents) is more accepted in academic settings
social skills training
- Insufficient command of social situations
- Insufficient knowledge of codes
- Use incorrect codes
Solution: Learn additional roles!!! (so integration not assimilation)
Schoolpsychologist: be
careful about assumptions
- Is language a problem?
- Respect input: be open for new information..
- Learn to know the clients’ values and norms
- No generalisations: take individual differences into account!
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acculturation=
the process of cultural and psychological change that occurs when individuals or groups from different cultural backgrounds come into continuous contact, leading to adaptations in behaviors, values, and identities in one or both cultures.
is acculturation new
no, old models even say it. first unidimensional models say that acculturation si a process of change in the direction of the mainstream/host culture.
bidimensional models: adaptation dimension (do i want to establish good relationships with the host culture) and cultural maintenance dimension (do it want to maintain good relations with my native culture)
Berrys acculturation model
is it considered to be of value to develop relationships with the larger society?
- yes: assimilation/integration
- no: marginalization/separation
is it considered to be of value to maintain one’s cultural heritage?
- yes: separation/integration
- no: marginalization/assimilation
four stages:
1. integration: biculturalism, combination of both cultures, has a preferece
2. separation: also called segregation, original culture is maintained and host culture is not considered important
3. assimilation: absorption into the host culture and loss of original culture
4. marginalisation: the loss of original culture without establishing ties with the new culture (least seen)
zie schrift
in addition to Berry’s acculturation: identity aspects
Hutnik (1991): a distinction between cultural change, or acculturation proper, and self-categorization (identity)
A two-dimensional identity model of acculturation: combining two dimensions of identification: with the ethnic minority and with the majority group
Four identity strategies in parallel with Berry’s four acculturation strategies
- acculturative (a hyphenated identity) Integration
- assimilative (a predominant majority identity) Assimilation
- dissociative (an embedded minority identity) Separation
- marginal (the individual is indifferent to
minority as well as majority identities) Marginalisation
Contextual acculturation model:
acculturation orientations are simultaneously influenced by (often competing) pressure by migrant’s ethnic community and the host society
-Public domain: the norms of the dominant group are most salient and influential
-Private contexts: ethnic in-group norms are most salient and most easily enforced in private contexts
Domain specificity is important! -> acculturation profile of successful minority students, after controlling for family background and school composition, appeared to alternate between separation in the family context and integration in the school context.
Most appropritate to measure acculturation attitudes, and in particular attitudes towards adaptation.
multicultural assessment
- Individual differences in cognitive, emotional, and motivational determinants of acculturation
- Psychological assessment has to go beyond group comparisons of “more or less acculturated” minority groups.
- Individual differences in psychological acculturation are to be measured using standard psychological and educational assessment
Adjustment dimension more relevant than the culture maintenance dimension
Position on Adjustment dimension (treated as a continuum rather than as a dichotomy) provides an answer to two related questions:
1. Can this person be considered to belong to the population for which the test or scale has been developed?
2. Is this instrument suitable for this particular person to measure the intended construct?
- Assessment outcomes have to be interpreted with the answers to these questions in mind.
- NOT assuming that all tests available can be used in minority groups but also NOT assuming that no test is valid for minority groups!
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biases in multicultural assessments
- it is a continuum, ranging from no adjustment to full adjustment. but usually measured on a binary scale
- extreme cases are easier assessed
- if a person has not adjusted at all, the tests become useless due to language barriers, unfamiliarity with cultural references, or different ways of expressing emotions
- the instruments are appropriate for completely adjusted persons
acculturation and problem behaviour
- migration is stressful: some individuals adapt well, while others struggle with emotional and behavioral challenges
- focus on 1) psychological adjustment (feeling well) and 2) sociocultural adaptation (performing well)
why is migration stressful
immigrants are exposed to:
- changes in social and cultural environments
- learning a new language
- conforming to new moral values and standards
waarom kan het tot problemen leiden in adolescents
difficulties with respect to
- language
- integration in educational system
- racism
- identity
in a period of life with developmental challenges -> may induce behavioural and emotional problems
Stevens et al: what is the main difference between maroccan and turkish people in NL
the level of education is lower and illiteracy is
much higher in Morocco than in Turkey
illiterate:
- morocco: 70% of women and 40% of men
- turkey: 28% of women and 8% of men
-> Moroccans living in The Netherlands (highly secularized and industrialized democratic state, a relatively high level of individualization and emancipation) generally have to bridge a wider cultural gap than the Turks
results of the study
- teachers: more externalising problems for moroccans compared to turkish and dutch children
- moroccan adolescents report less problems than dutch adolescents (and mostly turkish)
- moroccan parents reported lss problems than turkish, just as many as dutch parents
- moroccan paretns reported less emotional and behavioural problems than turkish parents
- girls more internalising, boys more externalising
-> conclusion: the effects of migration and acculturation on two immigrant populations in the same host country with a similar migration history and religion can be different
implications
- need to integrate multicultural assessment in standard practice
- level of problems vary widely per domain (home vs school)
- psychological assessment has to go beyong group comparisons of more or less acculturated minority groups, all are different
- individual differences in cognitive, emotional and motivational determinants of acculturation are important
