LECTURE 6 - Everyday Memory Flashcards
what is memory?
a group of processes involved in encoding, storing, and retrieving information
what is short-term memory?
- limited capacity and short duration (seconds)
- information fades if not attended to or moved to long-term memory
what is long-term memory?
- vast capacity and long duration (possibly decades)
- unlike short term memory which holds info in mind, info can be retrieved from long-term storage
how can ordinary people become superior memorizers (mneumonists)?
- by learning mnemonic strategies like…
- method of loci: using locations within a familiar space as placeholders for information that you want to remember, each location serves as a retrieval cue
- visualization: creating novel mental images to represent aspects of the encoded information
what is sensory memory? how can this information be moved to short-term memory? then into long term memory?
- highly detailed but short-lived impression of sensory information
- if attention is directed at info in sensory memory, they can be stored in short-term memory
- encoding is a multi-stage process that allows us to store memories in long-term memory (through rehearsal)
summary: attention needed to go from sensory to short term memory, encoding needed to go from short term to long term memory
what is iconic memory and what is it’s capacity and duration?
- iconic memory: sensory memory for visual information
- items can be stored for as long as attention is directed to them, one strategy is rehearsal (repeating things)
what are some encoding strategies that help us efficiently store information?
- chunking: breaking up information into smaller bits
- elaboration: linking material we are trying to learn to knowledge already in long-term memory
- self-reference effect: enhanced encoding when people link information to their own interests
- spacing effect: studying in shorter, spaced out study session is superior to cramming (distributed practice results in better memory performance than massed practice)
what does the depth of encoding depend on?
- depth of encoding depends on what you attend to during encoding
for example… - shallow encoding: is the word uppercase or lowercase
- intermediate encoding: does the word rhyme with “brain”
- deep encoding: would the word fit in the following sentence…
what is retrieval in memory?
- refers to accessing information from storage
- but memories can be distorted through encoding and retrieval problems
what is the testing effect?
- we have enhanced memory after retrieval practice
- remember material better after having been tested on it
what is the generation effect?
- enhanced memory for a self-generated list of items, related to items that were passively memorized
- remembering material better after writing it down
what are retrieval cues?
clues in the environment or in our stored representations of experiences
how do context-dependent, state-dependent, and mood-dependent memory help with memory?
- context-dependent: improved memory when the retrieval context matches the learning context
- state-dependent: improved memory when internal state at retrieval matches internal state at encoding
- mood-dependent memory: improved memory when emotional state is similar for encoding and retrieval
what is transience? what is the savings measure?
- the fading of memories over time
- the forgetting curve shows how quickly information fades from memory
- forgetting occurs most rapidly soon after learning and then starts to level off
- savings measure: how much less would you need to study material in a second study session, compared with a first, in order to learn it perfectly
how can absent-mindedness affect memory?
- inattention and distraction can disrupt encoding, preventing later retrieval
- to simulate distractions, researchers ask participants to do two tasks at the same time (divided attention tasks or dual tasks)
what is weapon focus?
- one example of bias due to distraction
- occurs when attention is so focused on a threatening weapon that other aspects of the scene are neglected and not encoded
what is blocking? what are some examples/types/
- blocking: failure to retrieve information
- tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: feeling of not being able to bring to mind a word despite being able to recall aspects such as the first letter
- interference effect: may not be able to remember information when memories compete with each other
- fan effect: increased associations between elements leads to greater interference
what did the original fan effect study show us?
- participants studied information about people in different locations
- the more items associated with one person or one location, the greater the interference, and the longer the retrieval
- fan effect is an example of associative interference
- fan effect shows us that our ability to recall something depends on how it’s stored in our memory, particularly how many things are linked to it
- especially when we’re dealing with meaningful (semantic) info
what are source monitoring, source misattribution, and source confusion?
- source monitoring: keeping track of where memories come from (real vs. imaginary events)
- external source monitoring: distinguishing between places or events that happened in the outside world
- internal source monitoring: distinguishing between internal thoughts and events (between what you thought, and what you said)
- source misattribution: confusions about the sources of our memories
- source confusion: trouble distinguishing memories of external events from memories of internally generated information
what study was done on memory suggestibility?
- showed participants video of a car crash which they had to recollect
- some participants asked to estimate speed of the cars when they hit each other or smashed into each other
- depending on the cue word (hit vs. smash), participants recollection of the car’s speed changed
- they also recalled seeing broken glass at the crash site when they heard the word “smashed” even though there was no glass on the ground
when is forgetting beneficial?
- many people who’ve experience trauma suffer from intrusive thoughts and flashbacks (PTSD)
- forgetting allows the formation of new memories since we have a limited capacity
both short-term and long-term memory…
a. must be retrieved before use
b. have a fairly unlimited capacity
c. require hierarchical organization
d. allow our experiences to affect our thoughts and behaviours
e. are also known as working memory
d. allow our experiences to affect our thoughts and behaviours
