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Vertebrate > Lecture 6 > Flashcards

Lecture 6 Flashcards

1
Q

With did tetrapods evolve from?

A

Sarcopterygii (lung fish)

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2
Q

What family are dart-poison frogs in?

A

Dendrobatidae

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3
Q

What are the 2 areas that amphibians have for picking up sounds from the environment? And what sounds can each pick up?

A

. Basilar Papilla (in common with other tetrapods)- 1200-1600Hz
. Amphibian Papilla (larger)- 200-800Hz

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4
Q

What are the two bones transmitting sound to the inner ear known as?

A

Operculum-columella

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5
Q

How many types of photoreceptors do adult amphibians typically have?

A

4:

  • 2 types of rods
  • 2 types of cones
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6
Q

What are the 2 types of cone photoreceptors in the eye of amphibians? Describe them- what they contain

A

. Single coke: contain pigment that has peak absorbable at 580nm: the yellow wavelength
. Double cones: consist of two cones fused together- one contains rhodopsin, the other contains the same yellow responsive pigment as the single cones

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7
Q

What are the two types of rod photoreceptors in the eye of amphibians? Describe them- what they contain. What do some amphibians contain?

A

. “Red” Rods: contain rhodopsin- green wavelength
. “Green” Rods: unique to amphibians- the blue wavelength
. Some posses a third type of rod photoreceptor that contains the purple- receptive Porphyropsin. Most commonly found in larval amphibians and in species that remain aquatic throughout life- UV range

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8
Q

The eye of amphibians contains a structure to support the eye. What is this structure called?

A

Choroidal hyaline cartilage

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9
Q

When does the eye of the amphibians change? Why do they change?

A

Changes during metamorphosis and breeding season
These animals start off in the aquatic environment in the larval stage and then are in the terrestrial environment during the adult stage- the senses change)

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10
Q

Colouration in amphibians: he group can be very colourful due to a range of pigmentations in their skin. Give these pigment cells and what colours due they produce? Where are the pigment cells found?

A

. colour- pigment cells are in the dermis
. melanophores- Black, brown reddish
. Iridophores- reflect light (they don’t have pigment so rely on reflecting light)
. Xanthophores- yellow, orange or red

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11
Q

Anura: frogs and toads. How many species are there? Give some features of them

A 
. 3750 species
. (an=without; uro=tail)
. Enlarged hind legs 
. Urostyle (fused posterior vertebrae)
. Fast, powerful, hindlimb muscles
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12
Q

Describe the neuronal structure of amphibians

A

Start seeing the development of specialisations in the brain, 3 different regions, like primarily with the sense

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13
Q

What are the 2 cardiovascular changes that occur in an amphibians life?

A

One change is to take into account the new terrestrial environment and other is the change from the larval form to adult. When in larval form they have gills and are reliant entirely on aquatic respiration and coming onto land in the adult form where they rely on the lungs and skin for respiration

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14
Q

Explain how the fact that amphibians have non-amniotes eggs effect amphibians lives

A

Reliant on pools of water to survive. Is one of the bottleneck processes that limits the amphibians- they have to go back to the aquatic medium in order to be able to reproduce

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15
Q

Explain amphibian reproduction

A

. There is a lot of sexual selection
. External or internal fertilisation
. Water or land (using small regions of water that are there for small regions of time
. Larvae or miniature adults initially

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16
Q

Explain the parental care in amphibians

A

. Often male
. Attached to adults
. Mouth or stomach brooders
. ovo-viviparous (water is in the female so the eggs are held in the body but they are not provided with any nutrients during development- so the eggs are simply not laid but just held within the female body

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17
Q

Explain the courtship of amphibians

A

. Pheromones (e.g. salamanders)
. Dimorphism (sexual) (e.g. newts and salamanders- how they look inside and outside of the breeding season) (e.g. frogs and toads- in size- the females are larger than the males)
. Advertisement calls
. Strong sexual selection through mating competition

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18
Q

What do the larvae that develop in streams tend to be like?

A

Tend to be streamline and have gills at the side

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19
Q

Larvae that develop in still ponds tend need a large SA for their gills. Why is this?

A

In still ponds the water levels can reduce particularly is there is warm weather and it is small and has lots of animals respiring within them- so the oxygen levels can drastically feline and so if you want to extract it then you need a large SA for your gills

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20
Q

Salamanders retain larval characteristic in adults, what is this called? Give an example

A

Paedomorphosis

Axolotl

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21
Q

Mole salamander retain larval characteristics depending of the environment. Explain how this works

A

Is there is bad conditions then it will delay metamorphose and remain the he aquatic environment in the larval form until the conditions improve and then they become adult form. Means that there are two sizes of adults- the ones that metamorphose earlier will be smaller when they become an adult and the ones in the water for nearly a whole year more continue to grow as they are feeding meaning they will leave the water a much bigger size then the normal ones would

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22
Q

Describe gymnophiona: caecilians (the legless amphibians)

A

. Leafless and either burrowing or aquatic
. Tropical Southern Hemisphere distribution
. Dermal scales
. Internal fertilisation
. Nests or viviparity

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23
Q

Reptiles fully colonised land. Two character complexes absolved one tetrapod lineage of obligate dependence in aquatic habitats. What are these

A
  1. The evolution of an egg with a smell impermeable to water loss (but allowing gas exchange)- if it leave an amphibian egg out in a dry environment then it will dry up and will not develop
  2. A combination of traits that reduced water loss, such as skin that is impermeable to water- new feature (apomorphy) and kidneys that could excrete concentrated urine
    (Vertebrates that have evolved these traits are called amniotes- after he type of egg they produce)
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24
Q

Describe amniotes eggs

A

. They are leathery or have a calcium-impregnated she’ll that prevents (a lot of) the evaporation of fluids from within, but allows O2 and CO2 to pass by diffusion
. These eggs store large quantities of yolk that allow the embryo to attain a relatively advanced state of development before it hatches

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25
Q

How is the reptilian amniotes eggs different from the amphibian egg?

A

It has 4 extra-embryonic membranes instead of the one in amphibians
The amnion surrounds the embryo itself in amniotes eggs whereas in amphibians it only has one and it protects the egg

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26
Q

What is the amnion in an amniotes egg?

A

It surrounds the embryo itself

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27
Q

What is the chorion in amniote eggs/ what it does?

A

Surrounds the embryo and yolk sac. It is in close contact with the egg shell and it is through the egg shell and through the chorion that has exchange takes place. Develops over time with the egg.

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28
Q

What is the yolk sac?

A

Surrounds yolk that nourishes the embryo

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29
Q

What is the allantois in amniote eggs? (Why did it evolve? Describe it)

A

Evolved to stir nitrogenous waste (so they are not surrounding the embryo itself)and aid has exchange between embryo and egg surface. It grows as the embryo grows and it merges with the chorion to protege chorio allatoic membrane*

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30
Q

How does the chick breath in the egg?

A

As the egg develops you get an air space at one end and it is at that air space that the chick will peak and breath through and break through the egg itself upon hatching

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31
Q

Give the main groups of reptilia (first group to develop the amniotic egg- able to divorce themselves from the aquatic environment)

A

. Synapsids (mammal-like reptiles, including ancestors of mammals)
. Sauropods (lizard-like reptiles)
- anapsids
~ “parareptiles including testudines (turtles, tortoises, terrapins)
- diapsids
~ archosaurs (dinosaurs, crocodiles, birds)
~ Lepidosaurs (lizards, snakes)

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32
Q

What are the names of the two types of hips in Dinosauria?

A

. Saurischia (lizard-like hips)

. Ornithischia (bird-like hips)

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33
Q

What are the two groups in Saurischia (lizard-like hips)

A

. Sauropodomorphs (apatosaurus, diplodocus)

. Theropods (tyrannosaurus, velociraptor, birds)

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34
Q

What are the 2 groups in sauropodomorphs?

A

. Apatosaurus

. Diplodocus

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35
Q

What are the 3 groups in Theropods?

A

. Tyrannosaurus
. Velociraptor
. Birds

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36
Q

What are the 4 groups in Orithischia (bird-like hips)?

A

. Ornithopods e.g. Hadrosaurs (duckbills
. Pachycephalosaurs (thick heads)
. Stegosaurus (plated) and Ankylosaurs (armoured)
. Ceratopsians (horned)

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37
Q

What does paraphyletic mean?

A

Have many sources but are all grouped together

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38
Q

The reptiles are an early amniotes lineage that arose and diversified when?

A

During the Carboniferous period (360-290 mya)

39
Q

Although originally called a class, the reptiles are actually a what type of group?

A

Paraphyletic group

40
Q

Some species of reptiles have eggs that do not develop shells and are retained inside the females body until they hatch. What is this known as?

A

Ovo-viviparity

41
Q

Reptiles have skin covered with what type of scales?

A

Keratinised (reduce water loss)

42
Q

Give an example of an archosaur: old lizards, include the subclass, where they give and spend their time

A

The crocodilians (subclass Crocodylia) are confined to tropical ad warm temperate environments. They spend much of their time in water but build nests on land or on floating piles of vegetation

43
Q

Testudines (tortoises and turtles) have shells (primary characteristic) what are the two parts of the shell called?

A

. Carapace (the top of the shell)

. Plastron (the under surface)

44
Q

What are the two groups of testudines (tortoises and turtles)?

A

. Cryptodires

. Pleurodires

45
Q

Describe the testudines group Cryptodires (number of species, examples, defining feature)

A

. 200 species
. Retract head vertically
. Snapping turtles, marine turtles, tortoises, terrapins

46
Q

Describe the testudines group Pleurodires (number of species, defining feature, example)

A

. 50 species
. Retract head horizontally, snake heads
. Matamata

47
Q

Why are testudines classed as having a fairly rigid structure?

A

Their vertebral column and ribs are fused to carapace as well as the ribs

48
Q

What method do testudines use to breath? How does it differ between the aquatic and terrestrial species?

A

Diaphragmatic ventilation to breath/ fill their lungs

Pharyngeal (through the lining of the throat) and cloacal respiration (aquatic species)

49
Q

Testudines sex determination is temperature dependent. Which temp produces which gender? What is the problem with this? How could it be overcome?

A

. Cool for males
. Warm for females
. This is a problem with the increasing temperature due to climate change-risk of not having any males.
. They can get around that by nesting in cool areas, out of sunlight but this would take the animals to change their basic behaviour

50
Q

What are the groups in diapsids?

A 
. Marine lineages (extinct) 
. Plesiosaurs (ribbon reptiles)
. Ichthyosaurs (fish reptiles) 
. Terrestrial lineage (living) 
. Lepidosaurs
51
Q

What are the 2 groups in diapsid animal group Lepidosaurs divided into?

A

. Sphenodontida (Tuatara)

. Squamata (lizards, snakes)

52
Q

The tuataras (subclass Sphenodontida) are a sister group to what?

A

Lizards

53
Q

In what era were sphenodontida diverse? How many species exist today?

A

. In the Mesozoic era

. 2 species

54
Q

What are Spenodontidas unique?

A

Because they probably represent a very ancestral type of lizard and one of the features is that they have a third eye

55
Q

Where is the pineal gland in Sphenodontida and what does it react to?

A

. Right up at the surface of the skull

. To light levels (we have one too but theirs react in a much bigger way to light levels than ours)

56
Q

What is the subclass Sphenodontidas Latin name?

A

Sphenodon punctatus

57
Q

What does the subclass (of Tuatara) Squamata include (species wise)?

A

. 3500 species of lizard
. 2500 species of snakes
. 150 species of amphisbaenians (a burrowing group)

58
Q

What are snakes specialisations in?

A

. Locomotion
. Prey capture (nothing other than the mouth)
. Swallowing (can’t push anything in- so rely on mechanisms in order to swallow)

59
Q

Because snakes are now long their organs, which you usually have duplicates (e.g. left and right kidney etc.) are next to each other would make them bulge out so what adaption prevents this?

A

They reduce one or lose it completely

60
Q

How does ecological type fossorial relate to snakes? What does it mean?

A

. Means burrowing (not just in soil e.g. leaf litter)
. Related to snakes because this is probably the state in which these animals probably first adapted themselves because when you burrow having legs doesn’t help you very much

61
Q

Where is the adaption of snakes to reduce or lose an organ completely to avoid bulging shown?

A

With the lungs- the left lung is usually greatly reduced or absent

62
Q

Snakes have adapted not just to reduce and lose organs but can offset them, where is this seen?

A

Seen with the kidneys, one is slightly further forward than the other

63
Q

How do snakes usually hunt?

A

Most of these animals are sit and wait predators or ones that hunt intermittently, and they take big prey

64
Q

Give an example of a snake that goes months without feeding

A

Phythons

65
Q

What are the 3 ecological types snakes use?

A

. Fossorial (burrowing, not just in the soil e.g. leaf litter)
. Epigean (living at soil surface- including those that climb trees)
. Aquatic

66
Q

What is a epigean ecological type?

A

Living at soil surface- including those that climb trees

67
Q

What are the consequences of diameter reduction in snakes/ where is it seen?

A

. Left lung reduced or absent
. Gall bladder posterior to liver
. Right kidney anterior to left
. Gonads offset (variable)

68
Q

What are the 4 types of locomotion that are used by the locomotory specialists- snakes?

A

. Lateral undulation
. Rectilinear
. Concertina
. Side winding

69
Q

Describe the locomotory technique used by some snakes- lateral undulation?

A

Throw body into a series of curls or curves and push against items in your environment

70
Q

Describe the locomotory technique used by some snakes- rectilinear

A

They have a series of scales on their under surface that can move against each other and they can move these and essentially creep forward, thus maintaining a straight shape, so don’t need undulations to move

71
Q

Describe the locomotory technique used by some snakes- concertina

A

If they are out in a confined space then they can push against that space

72
Q

Describe the locomotory technique used by some snakes- side winding

A

Modifications of this lateral undulation but instead of pushing against the sides of the things in the environment it is simply pushing against the sand- takes place in hot environments when you don’t want to lay against the hot sand all the time because you will overhear so they just have a few points of contact

73
Q

Snakes take prey that is very large in comparison to itself. They can’t chew so they must ingest their prey whole but if you take your prey in whole them you block any ability to breath. How do snakes overcome this issue?

A

Snakes can withstand breathing for periods of time

74
Q

What are the feeding specialisations of snakes/ adaptions to assist them in feeding?

A

. Skull with 8 flexible links
. Asymmetrical kinesis (movement)
. Constriction (for asphyxiation)
. Venom (toxins)- all snakes are venomous t some extent even if it doesn’t affect anything

75
Q

Give the features of venomous snakes

A

. Fast moving

. Thin bodies

76
Q

What are the 3 morphologies of venomous snakes?

A

. Opisthoglyphous
. Proteroglyphous
. Solenoglyphous

77
Q

Describe the morphology Opisthoglyphous of some venomous snakes. What are the problems with this morphology?

A

“Back fanged”, one or more enlarged teeth near rear of maxilla, May have groove to inject saliva. Problem although the venom makes the prey slow and will eventually kill it, it already has the prey in its mouth- so it is having to wait still and is trying to ingest this still struggling animal (risk of injury)

78
Q

Describe the morphology proteroglyphous of some venomous snakes. Possible issue with this morphology

A

Hollow fanged on front of maxilla, permanently erect, short teeth behind. Because they are permanently in place there is a limit to the size of the fangs

79
Q

Describe the morphology Solenoglyphous of some venomous snakes. Give a positive of this morphology

A

Only teeth on maxilla are long, hollow fangs. Maxilla rotates to allow jaw closure. Maxilla rotates forward during the bite. Inject the venom and then just follow the animal until it contends- don’t have to deal with a fighting animal

80
Q

The venoms of venomous snakes, may include one or more of: (give names and what they do)

A

. Proteinases- tissue destruction
. Hylauronidases- tissue permeability
. Amino acid oxidases- tissue destruction
. Phospholipases- cytolytic
. Polypeptides- neurotoxicity- stop things breathing etc.)

81
Q

How do Squmates show courtship behaviour?

A

. Displays

. Pheromones

82
Q

It’s the fertilisation external or internal in Squamate reproduction?

A

Internal fertilisation ubiquitous

83
Q

What do male Squmates have to inject sperm into the female?

A

Hemipenes

84
Q

How do Squamata produce their young?

A

. Oviparity (lay eggs)

. Viviparity (produce live young)

85
Q

How many times did viviparity evolve in lizards

A

45- (35 times in snakes- possibly independent so this is an example of convergent evolution)

86
Q

In Squamata where did Chorioallantoic placentas evolve?

A

Cold climates

87
Q

What does Parthenogenesis mean?

A

Production of young without the use of sex)

88
Q

In how many groups of lizards and snakes is parthenogenesis seen?

A

. 6 lizard groups

. 1 snake group

89
Q

Is parental care seen in Squamata?

A

Yes it is common (brooding stage less so when they are born and sometimes cannibalism)

90
Q

What is the metabolic rate of an animal relate to?

A

Body temperature

91
Q

How is body temperature regulated in Squamata considering they are ectothermic?/ how is body temperature regulated in ectotherms?

A

. Morphology- shape of the animal
. Behavioural- shuffle out of cold and warm places to maintain their body temperature
. Physiological- control of blood flow
(Not they are not cold blooded because they are able to regulate their body temperature)

92
Q

Actual temperature of ectotherms can differ from the preferred due to what?

A

. Predation- if it are constantly moving about then you may become very noticeable to your predator
. Water loss
. Food availability- whether or not you need to go out and forage or not
. Limited opportunities for behavioural regulation

93
Q

Are viviparous or oviparous at more risk from climate change? Why?

A

Viviparous are at more risk because they are developing the young internally and so if they are less able to regulate their body temperature then they are more likely to go extinct

Vertebrate (20 decks)

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