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Molecular Biology - Jourdan > Lecture 6 > Flashcards

Lecture 6 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
0
Q

Definition of haploid

A

Contains one set of chromosome

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1
Q

Definition of diploid

A

Contains two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent

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2
Q

Gametes:

A

Specialized reproductive cells; sperm or eggs generated through meiosis

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3
Q

Fertilization:

A

haploid gametes fuse to form a diploid cell (zygote)

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4
Q

Zygote:

A

Divides by mitosis to become a multicellular organism

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5
Q

Germline cells:

A

Gametes and their precursors

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6
Q

Somatic cells:

A

For the rest of the body and leave no progeny

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7
Q

Autosomes:

A

Chromosomes that are common to both sexes: one from each parent in each diploid nucleus

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8
Q

Sex chromosomes:

A

X and Y

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9
Q

How does meiosis create genetic diversity in two ways?

A
  • random segregation of homologs during meiosis

- crossing over

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10
Q

Gametes are diploid or haploid?

A

Haploid

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11
Q

Meiosis:

A

Two cell divisions but one round of DNA synthesis to produce half the number of chromosomes

Chromosomes replicate in S phase

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12
Q

How are the two sister chromatids bound together?

A

By cohesin complexes

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13
Q

How long can it take for homologs to pair in prophase I?

A

days or weeks

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14
Q

bivalent:

A

4 chromatid structure

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15
Q

Chiasma

A

Crossing over that gives stable pairing

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16
Q

How are homologs joined?

A

Synaptonemal complex protein structure

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17
Q

What is the small region of homology between X and Y that allows them to pair?

A

pseudoautosomal region

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18
Q

Name the five phases of prophase

A
  1. Leptotene: homologs begin to condense/pair
  2. Zygotene: homologs pair and synaptonemal complexes form
  3. Pachytene: synapsis is complete; crossing over occurs
  4. Diplotene: Synaptonemal complex begins to break down; homologs begin to separate but remain attached at chiasmata
  5. Diakinesis: Reach maximum condensation; separation of homologs and transition stage into metaphase
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19
Q

What forms Synaptonemal complex?

A

Transverse filaments between homologs form synaptonemal complex which is important for crossing over

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20
Q

What binds sister chromatids to each other? What is the importance?

A

Cohesin complexes assemble on DNA during S phase and bind sister chromatids. Major components of axial core of each homolog. Plays important role in segregating homologs in meiosis I

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21
Q

What are distinguishing features of meiosis

A
  1. Kinetochores on the 2 sister chromatids attach to microtubules coming from same pole
  2. Homologs separate at anaphase I
  3. Arms of sister chromatids separate at AI, resolving chiasmata and allowing separation
  4. Sister chromatids separate in anaphase II when separase cleaves cohesin complexes
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22
Q

What stage is human female meiosis arrested at and for how long?

A

Arrested for years after diplotene. And Meiosis I is completed only at ovulation and Meiosis II after fertilization

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23
Q

Nondisjunction:

A

Homologs fail to separate properly

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24
Q

When are nondisjunction errors very common?

A

Durirng egg development and increase with advancing maternal age

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25
Q

What is the leading cause of spontaneous abortions and mental retardation in humans?

A

nondisjuction

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26
Q

Aneuploid:

A

Cells with abnormal chromosome number

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27
Q

Trisomy 21:

A

Down syndrome: most common single cause of mental retardation

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28
Q

What is the main origin of additional chromosome in Trisomy 21 individuals?

A

90% of trisomy 21 cases, the additional chromosome is maternal in origin and 70% of the time the nondisjunction occurs during MI

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29
Q

Euploid:

A

cells with normal number of chromosomes

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30
Q

Random distribution of maternal/paternal homologs can produce how many different gametes?

A

2^n

2^23=8.4x10^6

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31
Q

How is variation increased during meiosis?

A

crossing over

2-3 crossovers per human homolog

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32
Q

When does meiosis begin in male mammals?

A

Begins in the testes at puberty and proceeds without arrest

-24 days to complete meiosis

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33
Q

What is the error rate in aneuploidy in eggs vs sperm? Why do they differ?

A

20% of eggs are aneuploid vs only 3% of sperm

A cell cycle checkpoint is activated in sperm w meiotic errors, resulting in apoptosis

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34
Q

What percentage of all human conceptions are aneuploid?

A

25% mostly due to nondisjunction in oocytes at meiosis I

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35
Q

What gametes are more prone to new DNA mutations? Why?

A

Male gametes as a result of undergoing more mitotic cell divisions; advanced paternal age leads to increased risk of point mutations

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36
Q

Primordial germ cells (PGCs)

A

Found in all vertebrate embryos and give rise to gametes

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37
Q

During development, where to PGCs migrate to?

A

To developing gonad: ovaries/testes

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38
Q

What is the cell cycle of PCGs?

A

Proliferate through mitosis and then undergo meiosis to differentiate into mature haploid gametes

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39
Q

In some animals, what determines which cells become germ cells?

A

In some: the egg contains specific molecules that determine

Others, including mammals: rely on neighboring cell signaling to dictate which become PGCs

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40
Q

In mammals, the dividing egg is ________ for first few rounds of cell division; then differentiate into _______.

A

Totipotent;PGCs

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41
Q

What must be suppressed by gene repression in developing mammal organism?

A

Somatic cell fates

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42
Q

Translation of certain RNAs must be ________

A

Inhibited (nanos)

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43
Q

Cell signaling leads causes PGCs to do what?

A

Proliferate and migrate to developing gonad in genital ridge

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44
Q

PGCs are _________ to cell fate

A

Uncommited

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45
Q

What cells can be removed and cultured with singaling proteins to form cell lines for any cell type for the body except extraembryonic cells?

A

PGCs because they are pluripotent

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46
Q

What determines of gonad is ovary or testes in genital ridge?

A

Sex chromosomes that are not in the PCG

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47
Q

What determines sex of embryo?

A

Sperm; presence or absence of Y determines sex of individual

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48
Q

What is the sex of 45, X?

A

Female

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49
Q

What is the default pathway for sex?

A

Female, Y directs ridge to develop into testis

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50
Q

What is the sex determining region of Y?

A

SRY gene is necessary and sufficient for testis development in mammals

51
Q

What can cause sex-reversal?

A

SRY
XX mouse + Sry = develops as a male but sterile
XY male with inactivating Sry mutation = develops as a female

52
Q

Expression of Sry causes cells to differentiate into what?

A

Sertoli cells which are testis support cells

53
Q

What does Sry encode?

A

Encodes DNA binding protein that regulates transcription of genes involved in Sertoli development

54
Q

What gene is expressed in all vertebrates that activates Sertoli-specific genes, including anti Mullerian hormone?

A

Sox9s

55
Q

What does ectopic expression of Sox9 in developing XX mouse gonads cause?

A

Causes them to develop as males (even without SRY)

56
Q

What does Sry direct in somatic cells to do?

A

Differentiate into Sertoli cells instead of follicle cells

57
Q

What type of hormone do Sertoli cells secrete?

A

Anti-Mullerian hormone

58
Q

What does anti-Mullerian hormone do?

A

Suppresses female development and causes mullerian duct to regress

59
Q

What do Leydig cells do?

A

Secrete testosterone and are responsible for secondary sexual characteristics

60
Q

What happens in the absence of Sry gene?

A

Genital ridge becomes an ovary, PGC becomes an egg, and somatic cells differentiate into follicle cells (support cells) and theca cells ( estrogen producing cells)

61
Q

An activated egg can give rise to what?

A

Completely new organism

62
Q

What is egg activation usually triggered by?

A

fertilization which is fusion of sperm and egg

63
Q

What is parthenogentic activation? What species does this occur in?

A

Activation in the absence of sperm. Can occur in some lizards and frogs but mammals cannot due to imprinting

64
Q

Reproductive cloning:

A

Egg cytoplasm can be used to reprogram a somatic cell nucleus to direct development of a new individual

65
Q

What do eggs contain for initial development of the embryo?

A

Stockpiles of nutrients

66
Q

Yolk:

A

Nutritional reserve

Rich in lipids, proteins, and polysaccharides

67
Q

Yolk granules:

A

discrete yolk-containing structures

68
Q

Egg coat:

A

Glycoprotein-rich extracellular matrix
Protects egg from mechanical damage
Acts as species-specific barrier to sperm

69
Q

What are the species-specific barriers to sperm?

A

Vitelline layer in non mammalian eggs

Zona pellucida in mammals

70
Q

What blocks polyspermy?

A

Upon egg activation with one sperm, specialized secretory cells called corticle granules release contents, which enter egg coat and block

71
Q

What are the stages of oogenesis?

A
  1. PGCs migrate into gonad
  2. Diploid oogonia undergo mitotic divisions
  3. Primary oocytes arrest at prophase I
  4. Resume progression at ovulation
  5. Cytoplasm divides asymmetrically creating a large secondary oocyte and polar body
  6. Secondary oocyte is arrested in Metaphase I
  7. Meiosis completed only after fertilization
72
Q

How do eggs achieve a large size?

A

They have extra gene copies in the cell and growth occurs after DNA replication.
Some species produce many copies of some genes like rRNA
Imported yolk proteins through receptor mediated endocytosis
Accessory cells-nurse cells-make ribosomes, mRNA, proteins
Follicle cells connect to each other and oocyte (gap junctions)

73
Q

Primordial follicle:

A

Oocyte surrounded by single layer of follicle cells

74
Q

Developing follicles:

A

multiple layers of follicle cells (granulosa cells) surround growing oocyte, and some developing follicles go on to accuire fluid-filled cavity, antrum

75
Q

Antrum:

A

Fluid filled cavity

76
Q

What happens to antral follicles during puberty

A

FSH surge induces 10-12 antral follicles and one becomes dominant

77
Q

What triggers ovulation? What happens to the primary oocyte during ovulation?

A

FSH + LH surge triggers ovulation and primary oocyte completes MI, becomes a secondary oocyte that arrests at metaphase II. Follicle enlarges and ruptures to release secondary oocyte

78
Q

After primary oocyte completes MI, what stage does does it arrest at?

A

Metaphase II

79
Q

What is a secondary oocyte surrounded by after ovulation?

A

granulosa cells

80
Q

What is sperm optimized to do?

A

Carry DNA to egg

81
Q

What organelles does the sperm cell contain in cytoplasm?

A

The cell is stripped down and has no cytoplasmic organelles

82
Q

What are the two distinct regions of a sperm?

A

Head-contains nucleus

Tail-propulsion

83
Q

What is the purpose of the midpiece in sperm?

A

It is packed with mitochondria to power flagellum for movement

84
Q

Why is the midpiece packed with mitochondrion?

A

Dynein motor proteins require ATP hydrolysis to slide microtubules for movement

85
Q

What does the acrosomal vesicle on sperm contain?

A

Hydrolytic enzymes that are released by exocytosis in acrosome reaction

86
Q

What is the purpose of acrosomal vesicles in sperm?

A

Helps penetrated egg’s outer coat

87
Q

When does meiosis begin for sperm?

A

Not until puberty

88
Q

What are the steps in Spermatogenesis?

A

PGCs—->Enters gonad—->Spermatogonium—>proliferate by mitosis
Meiosis:
Primary spermatocyte
Prophase I: paired homologs cross over
Complete MI to produce two secondary spermatocytes with 22 duplicated autosomes and X or Y
Each secondary spermatocyte enters MII to produce 4 haploid spermatids
Differentiate into sperm which escape into lumen of seminiferous tubule
Pass into epididymis, where stored and undergo further maturation

89
Q

Where does spermatogenesis occur?

A

In the seminiferous tubules

90
Q

During spermatogenesis what do the cells stay in close contact with?

A

Sertoli cells

91
Q

How many mitotic divisions does the Spermatogonium undergo before entering meiosis I?

A

Limited mitotic divisions

92
Q

What is syncytium between developing sperm?

A

Progeny of spermatogonium dont complete cytokinesis and remain connected through cytoplasmic bridges. So each share a common cytoplasm

93
Q

What do synchronous batches allow developing sperm to do?

A

Have access to diploid genome for their development

94
Q

What is fertilization?

A

Fusion of egg and sperm

95
Q

Capacitation:

A

Process required to acquire capacity to fertilize an egg

**(simpler terms)Changes that enables sperm to penetrate and fertilize an egg

96
Q

How long does fertilization take?

A

5 to 6 hours

97
Q

Where is fertilization completed?

A

Oviduct

98
Q

What biochemical and functional changes does a sperm undergo during fertilization?

A

Greatly increases motility of flagellum

Makes sperm capable of undergoing acrosome reaction

99
Q

What requirements are needed for fertilization that are all present in female genital tract? What are their purposes

A

Albumin-helps extract cholesterol from membrane, increasing ability to fuse with acrosome membrane

Ca2+ and HCO3-: activates adenyl cyclase in sperm to produce cAMP
-This helps to initiate capacitation-associated changes

100
Q

How does capacitated sperm penetrate granulosa cells?

A

Uses hyaluronidase

101
Q

What is the released egg surrounded by?

A

Granulosa cells and an ECM rich in hyaluronic acid

102
Q

Once the sperm passes the granulosa cells, what does it bind to?

A

Binds to zona pellucida

103
Q

What does the zona pellucida act as?

A

Species barrier

104
Q

What does the zona pellucida induce?

A

Induces sperm to undergo acrosome reaction

105
Q

What does the acrosome reaction help sperm to do?

A

Contents help sperm to tunnel through zona pellucida and alters sperm so it can bind and fuse with plasma membrane of egg

106
Q

How does the sperm bind to egg plasma membrane? How

A

First by tip and then by side; microvilli on egg aide in the process

107
Q

What certain membrane proteins are crucial to binding sperm and egg?

A

ZP1,2, and 3
ZP 2 and 3: form long filaments
ZP1: cross-links the filaments

108
Q

What does fusion with the sperm induce?

A

Induces cortical reaction where cortical granules release contents and meiosis resumes

109
Q

The events of egg activation are triggered by the increase of what ion?

A

Ca2+ in cytosol

Egg activation can be artificially triggered by injecting Ca2+ into egg

110
Q

What causes increase of Ca2+ in cytosol of egg?

A

Fusion of sperm, or injection of sperm

Sperm head, or sperm extract into egg

111
Q

When the fusion of sperm causes the cortical reaction to occur, what happens to the egg plasma membrane?

A

there are changes in the plasma membrane so other sperm cant fuse and prevents polyspermy

112
Q

What does the cortical reaction do to the zona pellucida?

A

The release of enzymes cause the zona pellucida to change so sperm cant penetrate

inactivation of ZP3 so it no longer binds sperm or induces acrosome reaction

ZP2 is cleaved which makes ZP impenetrable

113
Q

What happens after fertilization?

A

2 haploid nuclei (pronuclei) fuse in the zygote and forms a single diploid nucleus
Centrosome duplicates; and assemble mitotic spindle

114
Q

What does the sperm contribute to the zygote?

A

Centrosomes and centrioles which are not present in eggs

115
Q

What happens in polyspermy?

A

extra mitotic spindles are present and leads to faulty segregation of chromosomes and aneuploidy

116
Q

What are the statistics of reduced fertility?

A

10% of couples have reduced fertility
No pregnancy after 12 months of unprotected sex
Defect can by in either partner 50/50

117
Q

When was the first child born by IVF?

A

1978

118
Q

What is not considered routine for couples with reduced fertility?

A

In vitro fertilization

119
Q

How is In virto fertilization done?

A

Woman takes hormones to stimulate multiple oocytes to develop

Eggs are harvested and fertilized in culture dish with sperm

2-3 embryos are transferred to woman’s uterus

120
Q

What is the risk percentage of multiple pregnancies with IVF?

A

> 30% of cases

121
Q

What makes it possible for couples at risk for a genetic condition to conceive healthy children?

A

IVF combined with preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD)

122
Q

What is ICSI?

A

Intracytoplasmic sperm injection that allows men with few or non-motile sperm to father children.

Egg is injected with a single sperm

123
Q

What hurdles does ICSI allow sperm to bypass?

A

Capacitation, swimming to the egg, acrosome reaction, plasma membrane fusion

124
Q

What is cloning?

A

Transferring nucleus of somatic cell to an unfertilized egg lacking a nucleus; cell is activated to create embryo

125
Q

Compare reproductive vs therapeutic cloning

A

Reproductive cloning: clone embryo is placed in foster mother
Therapeutic cloning make ES cells genetically identical to donor (made in lab)-avoid immunological reaction associated with using organ donor

Molecular Biology - Jourdan (8 decks)

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