Lecture 5 - Play Flashcards
What are the 2 kinds of definitions of play proposed by Fagen (1974)?
Functional and Structural
Detail the functional definition of play proposed by Fagen (1974)
Functional - purpose of behaviour
No external goal – in order for a behaviour to be playful there should be no external goal (playing for fun)
Detail the structural definition of play proposed by Fagen (1974)
• Structural – the way in which a behaviour is performed Play signals (e.g. facial expressions) can show that the behaviour is playful Much of play behaviours is fairly typical and so play cannot be understood via play signals. E.g. running is considered to be playful but does not often elicit play signals. Loizos (1967) suggested behaviours can often be playful if they are a normal behaviour that is repeated/ fragmented/ exaggerated/ re-ordered. E.g. child running up a slope (not playful) but repeating this action, taking big steps up the slope or running halfway up can be considered more playful.
Explain the problems in defining and researching play
Play is very difficult to define, it is cause for much debate in psychology. One problem for researchers in understanding play behaviours is that exploration and play behaviours in infants are very similar. Power (2000) discovered that play behaviour is something that nearly all species of mammals engage in. E.g. puppies and kittens play fight, play with objects and chase after each other. Other animal research includes Reynolds (1976) observations of rhesus monkeys. He observed specific behaviours only exhibited during play, they chased, grabbed and lunged for each other. He defined play as being “behaviour in the simulative mode”, “simulative” meaning pretending – still not a precise enough definition.
Outline the descriptors of play
Kransor and Pepler (1980); Smith and Vollstedt identified 5 descriptors of play behaviour. No one descriptor is sufficient to tell whether a behaviour is play, equally we don’t always see all 5 descriptors in all play behaviours. Therefore it acts as a continuum, the more descriptors present the more likely a behaviour is to be considered play.
What are the 5 descriptors of play?
- Intrinsic motivation
- Positive affect
- Nonliterality
- Flexibility
- Means/ends
Detail intrinsic motivation
- Intrinsic motivation – play behaviours are motivated from within, play is done for its own sake (internal motivation) rather than for an external goal
Detail positive affect
- Positive affect – enjoyment factor of play, typified by smile and laughter
Detail nonliterality
- Nonliterality – can be a pretend element to play (not literal)
Detail flexibility
- Flexibility – usually variation in play behaviour across situations
Detail means/ ends
- Means/ends – means (act of engaging in play) should be more important than ends (end goal or result of play, e.g. knocking someone over)
Detail Garvey’s (1991) alternative features of play behaviour
According to Garvey (1991) play behaviours were more systematic and rule-governed. She suggested 5 alternative features of play behaviour, play:
- Is pleasureable – even when not obvious (no smile)
- Has no extrinsic goals – unproductive, no purpose other than enjoyment
- Is spontaneous and voulantary
- Involves active engagement on part of player
- Has certain systematic relations to what is not play
The first 4 features can be related to non-play behaviours, but the 5th feature is the most important contribution. To define play we can eliminate what is not play.
Why do children play?
• Play occurs worldwide and so it must have a function (Vandenberg, 1978)
• Exploration-play application sequence (Vandenberg, 1984; Wilson, 1975) – in early infancy children tend to explore something before they play with it making it difficult to differentiate between them. E.g. first cricket set, need to understand how to play before they start playing
Play motivates a child to learn – they are inextricably linked
• Play helps children to become skilled at manipulating objects (Ceyne & Rubin, 1983) – one of the first types of play is object play. They learn how to interact with objects, balance and stacking
• To build confidence – especially through social situations in groups reducing anxiety, improving language skills
• Linked to language learning – socio-dramatic play (role play), Smilansky (1968) pre-school children in Israel, didn’t do a lot of socio-dramatic play and were behind in language development and cognitive abilities compared to matched children who did socio-dramatic play. Interact with others, conflicts, negotiations promote language development
• Linked to cognitive and social development (Lillard, 2002 - Piaget, 1962 - Pelligrini, 2000). Lillard noted that between 12-30 months is an important time period for new forms of play developing which map onto rapid changes in cognitive development. Cognitive develop improves play and vice versa. Supported by Piaget, play consolidates schemas in sensori-motor stage. Pelligrini highlights benefits from rough and tumble play, aids social and physical development, helps understand hierarchy.
• Learn adult roles – e.g. pretend to mop floor
• To undertsnad emotions (Denham, 1986) – children who used more positive and negative states attributed to puppets were better at interpreting real emotional states in adults
Outline Parten (1932) classic study on play
Parten (1932) observed 42 children aged 2-4½ in nursery. Important study to understand different types of play children move through at this age. Between 2 and 4 children show social participation
There were 6 main categories of play:
unoccupied – not engaged in any type of play
1. Solitary play – children play on their own
2. Onlooker play – child watches other children play without joining in
3. Parallel play (around 18 months) – child does the same play as others without joining in
4. Associated play – child interacts with others starting to join in
5. Cooperate play – child is entirely cooperative in play with others, accept rules and from social bonds
6. Fantasy play – make-believe/ role play
As age increases a child shows lower levels of the first 3 types of play and higher levels of 4 and 5 in particular. Fantasy play does increase with age but not as closely linked as it can be done on their own and requires a strong imagination. Group sizes also increase with age and linked to a child’s communication abilities.
Detail Piaget’s view on play
Linked to the stage theory of cognitive development. He proposed 3 types of play:
• Practise/ sensori-motor play
• Symbolic/ representational play
• Games with rules
He was criticised for a very simplistic view of play
There has been a move to more detailed exploration of play – e.g. Smilansky (1968) identified 4 stages of play:
• Functional
• Constructive
• Dramatic
• Games with rules
