lecture 5 Flashcards
Emotion and motivation
theories of emotion
- Mental States: Feelings associated with our evaluation of experiences.
- Physiological Arousal: Bodily reactions (e.g., heart rate, sweating).
- Expressive Behaviors: Observable actions (e.g., facial expressions, body language).
- Mental Experience: Cognitions or thoughts related to the emotion.
discrete emotions theory
Humans experience a small number of distinct emotions that combine in complex ways.
Emotions have biological roots and evolutionary functions (Darwin, 1872).
Each emotion has a unique “motor program” (physiological and behavioral responses).
Emotions are processed in the limbic system, before reaching the cortex for thought.
Emotions are innate and universal across cultures.
examples would be happiness,sadnees,anger,etc.
support for an evolutionary account pt 1
Innateness:
Emotions appear early in life, e.g. spontaneous smiles during sleep (newborns), social smiles (6 weeks), and blind infants show similar expressions at 3 months.
Functional Nature of Emotions:
Emotions prepare us for biologically important actions. For example, disgust helps avoid harmful substances.
Animal Kingdom:
Non-human animals display similar emotional expressions, with high-pitched sounds often signaling distress and low-pitched sounds indicating aggression or dominance.
Universality of Emotion:
Paul Ekman found that seven primary emotions (happiness, disgust, fear, sadness, surprise, anger, and contempt) are recognized universally across cultures.
Secondary emotions (e.g., annoyance, contentment, guilt) form by combining primary emotions.
cultural differences in expression
Display Rules:
Each culture has its own guidelines for how and when emotions should be expressed. These rules shape the outward expression of emotions.
Influence on Expression:
Display rules affect how emotions are expressed (e.g., smiling, crying), but not the emotion itself. The underlying emotion remains the same.
Examples:
In some cultures, it’s inappropriate to show anger in public, while others might be more open.
Some cultures may encourage showing happiness more openly, while others might keep it reserved.
emotions and physiology
Differentiating Primary Emotions:
Some emotions can be physiologically differentiated.
Heart rate increases more with negative emotions.
Digestive system: Slows down with fear and speeds up with anger.
Brain Activation:
Fear activates the amygdala. (a major processing center for emotions)
Disgust activates the insula. (a small region of the cerebral cortex located deep within the lateral sulcus)
Similarities:
Happy and sad emotions look similar in brain scans.
Multiple brain regions are active in all emotions.
cognitive theories of emotions
Emphasize Cognition:
-These theories suggest that mental interpretation comes before emotions (i.e., “think first, feel later”).
-They argue there are no discrete emotions but as many emotions as there are kinds of thoughts.
- 3 theories:
- James-Lange
- Cannon-Bard
- Two-factor
cognitive theories of emotion pt 2 (james-lang theory)
James-Lange theory:
-Emotions result from interpreting our bodily reactions to stimuli.
-Somatic Marker Theory: We use “gut reactions” (e.g., increased heart rate) to guide decisions and actions.
cognitive theories of emotion pt 3 (cannon-bard theory)
Cannon-Bard theory:
An emotion-provoking event leads simultaneously to both an emotional and bodily reaction.
cognitive theories of emotion (two-factor theory)
- Two-factor theory:
Emotions are produced by undifferentiated arousal (like alertness) and a mental attribution of that arousal.
Misattribution of arousal: Sometimes, people attribute their heightened physiological arousal (e.g., increased heart rate) to the wrong emotion (e.g., mistaking fear for excitement)
facial feedback hypothesis
Idea: We feel emotions that correspond to our facial expressions.
Similar to James-Lange Theory, but this process is unconscious.
The theory suggests feedback from facial expressions might influence the brain, or it could be a result of classical conditioning.
Replication:
The original findings were replicated numerous times, supporting the idea that facial expressions can influence emotions.
However, 2016-2017: 17 studies failed to replicate these findings, casting doubt on the hypothesis.
nonverbal expression of emotion
- Much emotional expression is nonverbal
- Facial expressions, gestures, postures
- Nonverbal leakage: unconscious spillover of emotions into nonverbal behaviour
- E.g., Rolling your eyes when trying to hide the fact that you’re frustrated, angry or bored
body language and gestures
- Posture can communicate
emotions - Gestures
- Illustrators
- Manipulators
- Emblems - culture-specific
gestures - Waving goodbye
personal space
- Proxemics is the study of personal space
- Four levels of distance:
- Public (12 feet or more)
- Social (4-12 feet)
- Personal (1.5-4 feet)
- Intimate (0-1.5 feet)
- Moderate cultural and sex differences in the definition of
personal space - Western versus Eastern
lying and lie detection
- Most people are not good
at detecting lies - No correlation between
confidence and accuracy - Most professionals only
slight above chance (50%)
polygraph
- Though called a “lie detector”, it more correctly is an
“autonomic activity detector” - Rests on the assumption of a Pinocchio response
- supposedly perfect physiological or behavioural
indicator of lying - Yields high rates of false positives
- It’s biased against the innocent!
- Not admissible in most courts of law
other lie detection methods
- Guilty Knowledge Test
- relies on the premise that criminals have concealed
knowledge about the crime - Low false positive rate, high false negative rate
- Brain “fingerprinting” using imaging techniques
- Integrity tests
- questionnaire that presumably assesses workers’
tendency to steal or cheat
Motivation (Section 11.4 a, b, c) - The drives – especially wants and needs – that propel us
in specific directions - Two of the most powerful motivators are food and sex
drive reduction theory
Drives motivate us to act in ways that minimize aversive states (e.g., hunger, thirst, sexual frustration).
The theory has an evolutionary basis: We aim to maintain psychological homeostasis (balance).
Level of Arousal
Yerkes-Dodson Law: There’s a relationship between arousal and performance.
Moderate arousal often leads to the best performance (common in sports psychology).
When Drives Clash
Conflicting drives can lead to approach-avoidance conflicts:
Approach-avoidance: Wanting to approach something but also wanting to avoid it.
Approach-approach: Choosing between two appealing options.
Avoidance-avoidance: Choosing between two unpleasant options.
incentive theories
- Some needs take precedence over others
- Primary – biological necessities (e.g., hunger, thirst)
- Secondary – psychological desires
- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
hunger and eating
The Brain:
The hypothalamus is central for food cravings and regulating hunger.
Lateral hypothalamus: Initiates hunger.
Ventromedial hypothalamus: Stops hunger.
Hormones Involved
Ghrelin: Communicates with the hypothalamus to increase hunger.
Cholecystokinin (CCK): Counteracts ghrelin to decrease hunger.
Leptin: Signals the hypothalamus to regulate appetite and the amount of energy used.
weight gain and obesity
Leptin Sensitivity:
Reduced sensitivity to leptin can contribute to weight gain and obesity, as the brain doesn’t receive the signal to stop eating.
Set Point:
We may have a set point that maintains a range of body fat and muscle mass, although research on this is mixed.
Genetic Influence
Genes play a significant role in obesity.
Correlation for identical twins:
Raised together: 0.7-0.9
Raised apart: 0.4-0.7
External Influences
Expectations and external cues (like portion distortion) also influence eating behavior, potentially contributing to weight gain.
eating disorders
Bulimia Nervosa
-Involves recurrent binge eating followed by efforts to minimize weight gain (e.g., vomiting, excessive exercise).
-Affects 1-3% of the population, primarily females (95%).
-Individuals report high levels of body dissatisfaction.
Anorexia Nervosa
-Less common (0.5-1%) but more dangerous with a mortality rate of 5-10%.
-Individuals become emaciated, often losing 25-50% of their body weight.
-Characterized by body dissatisfaction and distorted body size perception.
More culturally and historically universal than bulimia.
attraction and love
Interpersonal attraction is influenced by several factors:
-Proximity: Being physically close to someone increases the likelihood of attraction.
-Similarity: We are drawn to people who are similar to us in values, interests, and background.
-Reciprocity: We are attracted to people who show interest in us.
-Physical attraction: Physical appearance plays a significant role in initial attraction.
sex differences in attraction
Males tend to place more emphasis on looks and prefer younger mates.
Women tend to prioritize financial resources and prefer older mates.
Both sexes value intelligence, dependability, and kindness in a partner.
Explanations:
-Evolutionary Model: Focuses on reproductive strategies (e.g., men prioritize physical appearance for fertility, women prioritize resources for offspring).
-Social Role Model: Emphasizes the impact of societal roles and norms on preferences and behaviors.
what is attractive?
Cross-Culturally:
Men and women tend to agree on who is attractive at much higher-than-chance levels, though culture influences preferences, including for body size.
“Just Average”
“Average” faces are rated as more attractive across cultures.
-This preference for averageness applies to faces, animals, and objects.
Why?
-The “average” face may signal a lack of genetic mutations or serious diseases.
-Averageness might also be preferred because it’s more familiar and symmetrical.
