Lecture 4: induction vs deduction

Question 1

How does an inductive approach to research look like?

Answer 1

Observations –> patterns & interpretation –> induce theory

Question 2

How does the deductive approach to research look like?

Answer 2

Theory –> hypothesis –> observations –> confirmation?

Question 3

What are characteristics of deductive reasoning?

Answer 3

Premises that lead to a conclusion. Conclusions are drawn from premises.

If we accept the premises as true, then we must accept the conclusion
as true

Question 4

How is deductive reasoning built up?

Answer 4

First premise (this is a universal, general claim).

• Second premise (antecedent). Takes the general claim, and focuses on a particular instance.
• Conclusion (or consequent) following logically from the antecedent. The ‘then’ portion of a proposition

Question 5

With deductive reasoning, the general claims lead to…

Answer 5

if-then propositions/conclusions.

Question 6

What is inductive reasoning? Name benefits of this as well.

Answer 6

• sense-based observations
• you have to gather many of them
• base conclusions on many empirical studies
• conclude in probabilistic terms: ‘it is likely that’, ‘it will probably be …’

Benefits?
* guards against biases and assumptions that statements are automatically true.

Question 7

What are limitations of deductive reasoning?

Answer 7

It relies heavily on the accuracy and truthfulness of its premises. If the premises are inaccurate, incomplete, or based on faulty assumptions, the conclusions drawn through deductive reasoning will also be flawed

Question 8

What are limitations of inductive reasoning?

Answer 8

inductive arguments provide no guarantee of the conclusion being true.

observation cannot come before theory. Every observation is dependent upon some kind of theory, whether conscious or subconscious.

Basing future knowledge claims on past observations –> There is no logical basis for assuming that our future experiences will conform to our past experiences. In relation to scientific theories, Popper pointed out that no matter how many times we observe phenomena that confirm a theory, this does not provide grounds to assume that the theory will hold for all future instances of the phenomena under question.

Question 9

What is the solution to the problem of inductive reasoning?

Answer 9

To phrase the final conclusion in probabilistic terms, thus allowing for the possibility that the future may not always resemble past observations.

Question 10

Summarize the trade-offs of inductive reasoning?

Answer 10

Observations help us build knowledge claims that are not (potentially) based on internal
beliefs. (Bacon)

• Drawback: we can’t make universal, generalizable statements based on X number of
  observations (David Hume).
• Solution: It’s better to speak in terms of probabilities or likelihoods: Given that most swans are white, there is a strong likelihood that the swans flying to and from Groningen’s canals will also be white.
• No more speaking in certainties…
  rather, strive for increasing your ability to
  speak in probabilities….

Question 11

Do social scientists make deductive statements or inductive ones?

Answer 11

A bit of both.

Question 12

What is the key difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?

Answer 12

Deductive: If you accept that the premises are true, it is impossible for the conclusion to be NOT true. The conclusion is guaranteed if you accept that the premises are true.

Inductive: If the premises are based
on consistent, repeated observations, then the conclusion will probably be
true. That is, the premise(s), make(s) it improbable, but still possible, for the
conclusion to be false.

Question 13

Apply deductive reasoning on this claim: Corruption in government always hinders a country’s economic development [P1 – general claim]

Answer 13

P2: I witness corruption in the USA government
Conclusion: then the USA’s economy is hindered.