Lecture 4: Climate Change

Question 1

NASA GISS, GISS TEMP (1800-2017)

Answer 1

• Most countries WERE between -1 degrees and 0 degrees in 1880
• Most countries are now between 1 degree and 1.5 degrees (2017)

Question 2

Why is the difference between 1.5 and 2 degrees important?

Answer 2

Limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees, compared to 2 degrees, could reduce the number of people both exposed to climate related risks and susceptible to poverty up by several hundred million by 2050
(IPCC, 2018)

Question 3

Give an example of the importance of the difference between 1.5 and 2 degrees

Answer 3

Extreme weather
- 1.5 degrees = 100% increase in flood risk
- 2 degrees = 170% increase in flood risk

Question 4

Steps necessary for 1.5 degrees

Answer 4

IPCC (2018): this data shows how quickly the global degree needs to drop to keep in 1.5 degrees - there is a cliff face drop that needs to take place to remain in 1.5 degrees. Need to half emissions in the next 10 years to keep on the 1.5 trajectory

Question 5

Psychologies contribution to addressing climate change (1-3)

Answer 5

1. researching and promoting public understanding and engagement
2. insights into peoples perceptions of CC
3. reducing emissions from peoples choices and behaviours.

Question 6

Psychologies contribution to addressing climate change (4-6)

Answer 6

4. systems that result in climate change are also underpinned by peoples decisions and actions - wider political contexts (consumerism)
5. beyond ‘behaviour’- people as agents of change
6. supporting adaptation and coping with CC - mental health and eco-anxiety

Question 7

Poortinga et al., (2019)

Answer 7

European social survey asking questions about Ps perception towards CC

Results:
- the reality of CC is now accepted by everyone
- CC has mainly been caused by humans
- Lower numbers of the impacts being bad

Question 8

Capstick et al., (2019)

Answer 8

Survey assessing how worried people were about CC
- assessed UK representative sample with the aim to gauge the level of UK concern about CC
- 1/5 say that they are extremely worried
- majority of people showing concern and worry

When asking people how concerned they are about CC
- 52% respond with “very concerned”, 33% responded with “fairly concerned”

Question 9

What determines Awareness and Concern?

Answer 9

1. Science, facts and information
2. Role of values

Question 10

Evidence of science determining awareness/concern

Answer 10

Ming Lee et al., (2015):
- assessed whether CC awareness and concern is determined by knowledge and information.

Results:
- found that more developed countries had more awareness and concern of CC compared to Africa, at this time, being more variable

In terms of basic awareness, they identified possible predictors (education, communication, access, other).
- They found that the main predictor was EDUCATION

They also assessed CC risk perception, with predictors of CC risk being:
1. cause of global warming
2. local temperature perception

• Findings show that developed countries risk of CC was due to knowing the causes, whereas less developed countries (Africa and Asia) used local temperatures as a guide to risk perception

Question 11

Ming et al., (2015) conclusions

Answer 11

• Worldwide educational attainment is the single strongest predictor of CC awareness
• Understanding the anthropogenic causes of CC (human actions) is the strongest predictor of CC risk perceptions

Question 12

Evidence of the role of values determining awareness/concern

Shi et al., (2016)

Answer 12

Shi et al., (2016): found that knowledge of the cause and consequence of CC were important influences on concern. ALSO biospheric values (values centred on the concern about nature) was important influences about concern about CC.

Question 13

Evidence of the role of values determining awareness/concern

Lorenzoni et al., (2006)

Answer 13

Asked Ps what their first image was to come to mind when saying the word “Climate change” between US and UK Ps.

Results:
- US most prominent image was ice melting
- UK most prominent image was weather, global warming, and ozone

IMPORTANTLY - images categories that weren’t present are important:
- health
- justice
- politics
- history
- the future
- the urgency
- action

Question 14

Gifford et al., (2011) Barriers to attitude change

Answer 14

7 psychological barriers to attitude change
1. limited cognition
2. ideologies
3. other people
4. investments
5. discredence
6. perceived risk
7. limited behaviour

“Dragons of Inaction”

Question 15

Almost all evidence suggests that many people are aware of the CC crisis, BUT do they care? (2 viewpoints)

Answer 15

1. Psychological Distance
2. Availability Heuristic

Question 16

Spence et al., (2012): What is psychological distance (Construal Level Theory)

Answer 16

Used this notion of psychological distance from construal theory to examine the extent to which people are or are not psychologically distant from the topic of CC.

Assessed
- geographic distance
- social distance
- temporal distance
- hypothetical distance

Results:
- absolute levels of psychological distance are not high - this means that people are actually quite concerned AND are psychologically close to the notion of CC.
- More people argued that their local area will be effected.

BUT psychological distance (inversely) predicts concern - the extent to which people did have psychological distance did influence their level of concern about the issue and their preparedness to reduce energy use.

Question 17

What is the availability heuristic

Answer 17

If something is available, it means its salient and easily brought to mind. In the case of CC, we may be able to recognise when we are asked about it that it is an important issue but its availability is low - its a potential, future, uncertain risk.

Question 18

Increasing the AVAILABILITY of CC through the TEMPERATURE

Answer 18

Zaval et al., (2014): demonstrated (using objective measures) that temperature affects attitudes
- In one experiment, Ps were given a jumble of words and they had to piece them together to make a sentence. If the sentence formed were more related to heat, then people were more likely to report higher levels of belief and concern about CC

• In another experiment, people felt that if the day they were in the lab was warmer than usual, then they were more likely to say that there had been greater portions of warmer than average days.

Question 19

Capstick et al., (2015): evidence of using temperature as an example of the availability heuristics

Answer 19

Quasi-experimental studies suggest that changing temperature and weather conditions may affect climate change perceptions, over many studies, researchers found that public opinion data (level of concern and belief) varied over time. Also if the weather changed overtime, further change in beliefs were observed.

Question 20

Evidence of EXPERIENCE as an example of the availability heuristics - Demski et al., (2016)

Answer 20

This work was linked to winter floods in the UK. People who either HAD direct experience with the floods or did not have direct experience with the floods were surveyed.

Findings showed that those who had direct experience were more concerned about CC and felt that it was more personally salient

Question 21

Evidence of EXPERIENCE as an example of the availability heuristics -Myers et al., (2016) DESIGN ONLY

Answer 21

This study posed the chicken and the egg question
1. do climate change impacts lead people to become more certain of the reality of climate change. OR
2. does prior belief shape peoples perceptions of impacts through motivated reasoning?

This study looked at this in more detail. They assessed personal experience and belief certainty over two time points and tested a range of statistical models - to assess whether CC beliefs influenced whether they thought they had experienced extreme weather OR whether experiences of the weather effected peoples beliefs

Question 22

Myers et al., (2016) RESULTS ONLY

Answer 22

They found that both processes occurred:
- experiential learning occurs primarily among people who are less engaged in the issue (experiencing extreme weather leads to different CC beliefs)

• motivated reasoning occurs primarily among people who are already highly engaged in the issue (those who are already concerned about CC notice when the weather is more extreme)

Question 23

What behaviour change is needed?

Answer 23

Wynes & Nicholas (2017):
- Tried to quantify the effective/impactful actions.
MOST-to-LEAST impactful:
- have fewer children
-live car free
-avoid a transatlantic flight
-eat a plant based diet
- wash clothes in cold water
- recycle
- hang dry clothes
- upgrade light bulbs

We need to think about IMPACT rather than INTENT

Question 24

where, by whom, does the change need to happen?

Answer 24

There is a strong link between income and carbon footprint. The top 1% need to reduce their emissions by a very large amount

Question 25

How to change behaviour? - Grill & Curtis (2021)

Answer 25

They carried out a review of pre-existing studies that attempted to change pro-environmental behaviour. They then looked at whether or not these studies had been successful to achieve their aims to make pro-environmental behaviour change. They categorised all the interventions as:
1. Education and Awareness
2. Social Influence
3. Incentives
4. Outreach and relationship building
5. Nudges and behavioural insights

Findings:
- An optimistic view was found. All treatment are somewhat effective but with different magnitude based on behaviour type and target population.
- Most effective was social influence. Education and Awareness training had mixed results but overall quite a high success rate.

Question 26

How to change behaviour? - Nisa et al., (2019)

Answer 26

Carried out a recent meta-analysis and found different effects. This paper only considered RCT (good experimental data), and they had stricter criteria.

They found evidence that:
- information didn’t work
- changes didn’t last
- important actions (with high impact over intent) were “barely effected”
- the most promising interventions were nudges and social comparison messages.

Question 27

How to change behaviour? - Van der Linden & Goldberg (2020)

Answer 27

Carried out their meta-analysis using the same data as Nisa et al., (2019) and concluded that “unfortunately, the data provided does not support the conclusions reported” and that “alternative estimates provide … a more optimistic interpretation [that] could be consequential when scaled at population level”.
More effective solution would be a behavioural intervention & financial help - many ppl are concerned ab small impact behaviours but we need to focus on the bigger picture picture (gas & oil)

Question 28

How to change behaviour? - Stern (2020)

Answer 28

Argues that trying to change behaviour on its own, without making changes to the broader context, is well known not to be effective, we should make behaviour change interventions happen in combination of other changes aswell

Bit of a debate - shows complication

Question 29

Changing individual behaviour as a distraction (Mary Heglar)

Answer 29

Many people involved in climate activism are concerned that the emphasis on individual behaviour distracts from a broader recognition of structural conditions that need to be changed. Need a systematic change! Go to a pro-environmental group rather than switching your lightbulbs off.

Question 30

Adams (2021)

Answer 30

Really, what we should be thinking about is how to encourage people to engage with bigger political issues around these problems

Question 31

Critique of mainstream psychology on CC (Whitmarsh et al., 2021)

Answer 31

In many of the models and theories there has been an over individualistic focus. Assuming that the individual has the ability to make choices, assumes rational action and focus on simple and low-impact pro-environmental behaviour. As a result, one of the things they argue is not to criticise the field as it is BUT to say that there could be more promising routes to behaviour change by thinking about many different roles and contexts we occupy in our lives.

Question 32

Critique of mainstream psychology on CC (Neilsen et al., 2021)

Answer 32

We should consider not just behaviours but peoples different roles. Focus on high impact changes. Recognise context and culture. Also, link to agency and structure

Question 33

Critique of mainstream psychology on CC (Amel et al., 2017)

Answer 33

Argued that we do have the personal and private behaviours that are important BUT they emphasise that the different circles growing outwards still are important and actually have larger impacts on CC.
Largest impact = cultural

Question 34

Coping with climate change and climate anxiety - Hickman et al., (2021)

Answer 34

Carried out a survey globally using 16-23 yr olds. Found high levels of worry across countries. Almost half (45%) report feelings about CC negatively affecting their daily life. Also, there are strong feelings of betrayal

Question 35

Coping with climate change and climate anxiety - Whitmarsh et al., (2022)

Answer 35

survey of UK population, using the climate change anxiety scale. Found high levels of concern. High prevalence of ‘mild’ anxiety and low levels of ‘moderate’ or ‘severe’ anxiety.