Lecture 4 Flashcards
The sense of self
Awareness of the self as differentiated from other people is crucial for
children’s development
Individual Self
Aspects of the self that make a person unique and
separate from others
Relational Self
Aspects of the self that involve connections to other
people and develop out of interactions with others
Collective Self
A person’s concept of self within a group, such as a
group based on race or gender
Online Self
A person’s online self-representation on Internet profiles
and within multiplayer games
Self-esteem
The evaluative component of self that taps how
positively or negatively people view themselves in relation to others
high self-esteem=
competent, capable, and are pleased with who they are
* Valued in Western culture (individualism)
Outcomes of self-esteem
- Individuals with high self-esteem are happier than those with low self-esteem
- High self-esteem in childhood = positive adjustment outcomes including school
success, good relationships with parents and peers, and less anxiety and
depression - BUT direction of effects is unclear
Narcissism
is defined as an inflated
sense of one’s importance and
deservingness
psychologists have characterized this as “the dark side of high self-esteem”
what is the common belief that narcism
a common belief that narcissism is simply an extreme form of self-esteem
Narcissism and self-esteem are only
weakly positively correlated
True
As many narcissists have high self-
esteem as low self-esteem
True
Types of Narcissism
- agentic
- antagonistic
- neurotic
Agonistic
need for admiration, feelings of grandiosity and
superiority, assertiveness, leadership, and approach motivation
- positive correlation with self-esteem (moderate)
Antagonistic
arrogance, exploitativeness,
deceitfulness, entitlement, callousness, and low empathy
(disagreeable and antisocial facets).
* Negative correlation with self-esteem (small-moderate)
Neurotic
emotional dysregulation, hypersensitivity,
and shame proneness
* Negative correlation with self-esteem (large)
Mean-Level Change in Agentic, Antagonistic, and Neurotic
Narcissism From Age 8 to 77 Years for Nonclinical Samples
True
Self-perceptions are ____ specific
Domain
Five Domains of Self-Perceptions
Scholastic Ability
Athletic Competence
Physical Appearance
Behavioural Conduct
Social Acceptance
Learning-Self Appraisal
- Children also distinguish among different kinds of competence and view
themselves as better in some domains than others
___________ in each domain affects global self-esteem
Children age 8 or less
who they want to be (positive)
late childhood, adolescence
More
realistic and
domain-
specific (positive and negative)
Family Influences of high vs. low self esteem
Children’s higher self-esteem associated with parents who are - Accepting, affectionate, and involved with their children, set clear and
consistent rules, use noncoercive disciplinary tactics, and consider the child’s views in family decisions (support autonomy)
Low self-esteem = abusive, psychologically controlling, intrusive,
invalidating - Could lead to narcissistic tendencies
Process Praise
Praising students’ level of
effort and effective
strategies
“You worked so hard on this!”
- improves student’s motivation to learn after encountering failures
- works well for children but not adolescents
Ability Praise
Praising talent and ability “you’re so smart”
- Decreases students’ motivation to learn
after failures
Inflated Praise
exaggerated praise
“you did an incredible job”
- More often directed toward children with low self-esteem
- Inflated praise might convey to children that they should continue to meet very high
standards - As such, it decreases challenge-seeking in children with low self-esteem and has the opposite effect on children with high self-esteem - Over time: Inflated praise may prompt children with low self-esteem to avoid crucial
learning experiences
Identity
The definition of oneself as a discrete, separate entity
Identity Achievement vs. Role Confusion
Task is to achieve a
coherent sense of self.
Process: experiment with
different roles, activities,
and behaviors
If identity isn’t formed, the
adolescent will be confused
about their role (family, friend
group, society).
Process: not allowed to explore
and test identities
Identity Formation
- James Marcia (1966, 1993) - Adolescents experience a crisis of decision making when exploring
identities
E.g., trying out different career paths
____% of adolescents stay in the same stage across adolescence
60%
Identity Achievement
Gone through exploration and made a
commitment to an identity
High level of commitment
High level of exploration
Identity Moratorium
Involved in exploring but not made a
commitment.
Low level of commitment
High Lebel of exploration
Identity foreclosure
Made a commitment without attempting
identity exploration.
high level of commitment
Low level of exploration
Identity Diffusion
no identity crisis nor commitment
low level of commitment
low level of exploration
Identity Achievement
associated with high self-esteem, cognitive flexibility, more mature moral reasoning, clearer goal setting, and better goal achievement
Identity Foreclosure
more authoritarian and inflexible and more susceptible to
extreme ideologies and movements, such as cults or radical political movements
Identity Moratorium
anxious and intense, often have strained or ambivalent relationships with their parents and other authority figures; better adjusted than
foreclosed or diffused identity status
Identity Diffusion
viewed as the least mature in their identity development. Some
are delinquents and abuse drugs; others are lonely or depressed; still others are
angry and rebellious
What influences general identity development?
- autonomy
more time away from parents
increasingly making own decisions - changes in cognitive functioning
Abstract reasoning influences thinking about the self
Ability to recognize different selves in different contexts, and integrate one’s self
across these contexts
Ethnic-Racial Identity (ERI)
Recognition of being a member of a
particular race or ethnic group
Ethnicity
languages, values, beliefs, and traditions to which people
are connected through ancestry, nationality, and/or family
Race
based on geographic location; people are categorized by
appearance (including skin colour); social and political construct
Rooted in social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979)
Define an individual as similar to or different from members of other groups
* Social categories provide a system of orientation for self-reference (i.e.,
“Which social group do I belong to in society?”)
Cognitive Facets
Knowledge - Children know that their ethnic group has distinguishing characteristics
including behaviors, traits, customs, styles, and language
Self-identification - Children categorize themselves as a member of a particular ethnic
group.
Constancy - Children understand that the distinctive features of their ethnic group
are stable across time and situation and that membership in the group
does not change.
Facets of Ethnic Identity
Cognitive Facets
Affective Facets
Behavioural Facet
Affective Facets
Preferences - Children feel positive about belonging to their ethnic group and prefer
their ethnic group’s behavior patterns.
In-group/out-group attitudes - Their attitudes (prejudices and stereotypes) toward their own group and other groups, including public regard (other people’s attitudes)
Importance - How important the ethnic group is to the individual’s overall self-
concept
Behavioural Facet
Behaviours - Children enact and endorse behavior patterns that distinguish their
ethnic group.
Clark & Clark 1940s studies
- Researchers queried Black preschool
children about their attitudes toward in-
group and out-group members - Point to White or Black dolls in response to
questions such as “who is nice”, “who is
mean” - Contrasts between segregated vs
integrated African-American children in
Washington DC - This research had a profound impact on
the field and on political decisions
surrounding segregation
similar findings amonghts Indigenous children (corenblum et al. 1996)
indigenous Canadian children
out-group success –> ability and hard work
in-group success —> luck and task ease
ERI is salient in societies with ethnoracial hierarchies (i.e., some
groups have political power and access to more resources)
True
Positive ERI
Enhanced self-concept and self-esteem
Negative ERI (internalized racism)
Engage in self-concept preservation strategies
(e.g., self-hated or dissociation from the group)
Developmental Roots of ERI
Infancy
* 3-months: babies look longer at faces of their own race than faces of other races
* 9-months: positive emotions toward own race
Preschoolers
* Some ethnic group knowledge; developing preference for their own ethnic group
Early elementary school (ethnic-racial constancy)
* Understand that ERI does not change over time or context
ERI begins to form
Middle-childhood through to adolescence
* Most active period of ethnic-identity development along with exploration of general identity
* Ethnic racial identity becomes more central to one’s self-concept
Examples of how children and youth describe their ethnicity
language
“It means that when you know your own language you can speak with everyone”
Heritability
“Because you’re born that way, if your mother is Chinese, you’ll be too”
Appearance
“You’re born being black”
Pride (positive emotions)
“You like what you have and you’re proud of what you are”
Traits
“To be smart, successful, and strong”
Ethnic Identity of Immigrant Children
Immigrant children feel positively about their ethnic identity but also identify to varying degrees with their receiving culture
Enculturation:
learning about and adapting to the ethnic origin culture
(influenced by family)
Acculturation:
learning about and adapting to the receiving culture
(influenced by school)
Bicultural Identity
adopting both the norms and attitudes of the majority or
new culture and the valued traditions from their native culture.
new culture and the valued trad
Bi- and multi-racial children and youth
- Fastest-growing demographic in Canada and the
US
Multiracial youth’s ERI may be both accelerated
developmentally and more nuanced compared to that of monoracial youth
Because of their earlier exposure to family members
from different ethnic backgrounds, multiracial youth
may be more likely to develop an earlier
understanding of social hierarchies and awareness of
bias
Promotes their sociocognitive development (better
perspective-taking and more cross-group friendships)
Adolescents who identify with at least one race
are better adjusted than those with no clear
identity
True
Colour blind approach
dismisses the fact that there are structural racial-ethnic inequalities by
saying that race doesn’t matter and is not something that needs to be discussed
Factors that Promote Ethnic Identity
Parental Socialization
Peer Socialization
Parental Socialization
Impart knowledge about cultural traditions and instill pride in their ethnic
heritage
* Explicitly via conversations about race
* Not only function to shape facets of identity, but also to shape intergroup attitudes
* White children: colour blind approach and colour conscious approach c
Colour conscious approach (reduced racial bias)
increases awareness of structural inequalities and barriers that
certain groups face (equip children with knowledge to combat inequality and disrespect)
BIPOC children
prepare them for race-based bias and discrimination, not to get used to
it but to be aware of structural inequality and empower them to address it
Peer socialization
- Spend time with members of own ethnic group, which contributes to more
stable ethnic identity
Cross-group contact
Adolescents who spend time with members of other
ethnic groups have more mature ethnic identities
importance of ERI
Why is ethnic racial identity important (especially for minority
status children and youth)?
* Promotes feeling positively connected with others who are similar
(belongingness)
* Connection can protect children from the negative impacts of ethnic
discrimination
* Foster a positive self-esteem and academic outcomes
Risks in not identifying with own ethnic group?
* Criticism and exclusion by own group (low belongingness)
* Low self-esteem and achievement
Gender Identity
subjective experience that may or may not coincide with sex
assigned at birth
* Consists of gender labeling, typicality, connectedness, and felt pressure to conform
Biological Sex
assigned at birth, based on chromosomes (male, female, intersex)
Gender Expression
how people publicly express or present their gender
Development
Most studies have been conducted with cisgender children (i.e., when gender
identity aligns with assigned sex)
Gender identity emerges within the first few years of life
- Infants discriminate gendered faces as early as 3-4 months
- 3rd birthday, categorize themselves into binary gender categories
- Gender stereotypes take root around 3 years
- 4-5 years: prefer same-gender peers, view gender as relatively stable
Gender identity becomes central to their sense of self across development,
influencing children’s:
- Social interactions
- Peer relationships
- Activity and preferences
gender identity across cultures
Across history, many cultures have recognized
gender identities other than male and female
(e.g., Hijras)
Indigenous and gender identity
In 1990, the term Two-Spirit was introduced at the third annual international LGBT Native American gathering in Winnipeg put forth by Elder Myra Laramee.
Prior to colonialization, Two-Spirit peoples were healers, medicine people, and visionaries within their community
- Two-Spirit is a term chosen by some Indigenous people to describe an aspect of their identity
Diversity
Present: (more) acceptance of gender non-conforming
behaviour
* Gender independence
* Parents should stay open to all outcomes and refrain from voicing their preference
* Why? Conforming to gender norms may cause significant distress (Pyne, 2014)
Differences in gender identity expression:
* Some express more ambiguity (gender fluidity)
* Some (but fewer) transition to another gender
- Social transition
- Medical transition (bring body in line with gender identity)
- Gender-affirming care is critical for the health and wellbeing
of transgender youth!!
History of gender identity
Before mid-1970
* Traditional gender roles and expectations (masculinity and femininity)
— Ideal gender identity development = conform to traditional gender roles
* Believed to depend on same-gender parents
* Didn’t match gender roles?
—– Poor wellbeing, pathologized
After mid-1970
* Shift in cultural climate
* Men and women possess similar characteristics and can be both masculine and
feminine
—— Masculinity, femininity, androgyny
Factors that shape gender identity development
Socialization?
* Sociocultural influences undoubtedly play a role in children’s understanding
of gender BUT unlikely the mechanism that influences gender identity
- Cognition?
- Gender schema: cognitive structure that organizes future information
processing about sex typing and gender stereotyping - Self-socializing process: orient to messaging about their gender identity
- Biology?
- Some evidence that androgen levels in the prenatal environment have been
linked to gendered behaviors in childhood (Hines, 2009, 2011)
Need more research on gender identities beyond the binary
Gender independence and identity
‘‘My daughter’s gender is not a problem. . . it’s everything else
around her that’s a problem.’’ (Father quoted in Pyne, 2012)
It’s not the child, it’s the system
* Schools
* Interventions in schools include creating more
welcoming environments (Meyer, 2006; 2009)
* Family
* Changing parental attitudes toward acceptance
* Media
* E.g., Rupaul’s Drag Race
* Online connection
Developing knowledge about others
- < Age 1 – babies are interested in and responsive to the emotions and
behavior of other people
Attend to stimuli with the characteristics of the human face and voice
Know when someone is talking to them
Reference others’ emotions when shaping their own actions (ASL!) - Age 1 – Begin to understand that people’s actions are intentional and goal
directed - Age 1.5 years - recognize simple social norms
- End of second year – can describe scripts for social routines
- Script - a mental representation of an event or situation of daily life
including the order in which things are expected to happen and how one
should behave in that event or situation
Early Understanding of Others’ Emotions
Emotion is a channel through which children learn
* Children become affectively tuned into the distress and amusement of
others
* Show curiosity about and understanding of the causes of pain, anger,
distress, pleasure, dislike, fear, comfort in others.
* They play with and joke about these feelings in others and tell stories
about them
Disputes are important! Children frustration in disputes prompts
more appropriate problem solving later in development &
knowledge about how others think and may respond in similar
situations
* Why might this be the case?
Theory of Mind (ToM)
Children’s
understanding that people have mental
states such as thoughts, beliefs, and
desires that affect their behavior. It
allows children to get beyond people’s
observable actions and appearances
and respond to their unseen states
How is ToM measured?
false-belief task
Children reliably respond correctly to
this task at about 4-5 years of age
(ToM) But, in conversations with family
members, children refer to others’
internal states and intentions
much earlier than 4-5 years old
Understanding Psychological Trait Labels
Beyond the toddlerhood and preschool years:
* Age 5-7 - recognize that people have psychological or personality attributes that distinguish them from each other and are stable enough to predict how people will act at different times and in different situations (Good Vs Bad)
- Age 9-10 - describe another person’s actions less in terms of good or bad and more in terms of stable psychological traits (selfless, generous, hurtful)
- Adolescence - realize that people are full of complexities and contradictions
Advancing Social Understanding
What influences a child to be able to understand others?
Parent-child conversations
* Conversations that include descriptions of the internal states of self and others
* Emotion talk
* Cognition words (e.g., know, because, how, why)
Siblings and Friends
* Two important types of interaction
* Pretend Play
* Dispute Resolution
* Interactions also involve discussions about shared concerns, interests, and goals
