Lecture 3: Modern Rationalism and Empiricism Flashcards
Who is Francis Bacon?
He is a Empiricist but not like Aristotle?
What are his ideas?
- New science needs new thinking
about science and knowledge
acquisition - Empiricism
- But not Aristotle’s empiricism:
- Bacon aims for a ‘total
reconstruction of sciences, arts and all human knowledge, raised
upon proper foundations’ - We need to be aware of the idols:
preconceptions and illusions. - We need a solid foundation for
science!
What did he publish?
A New scientific method:
Novum Organum (Bacon), early 17th century
Bacon intended to provide a new compass that would guide the ship of science to new and unsuspected discoveries, a new scientific method.
‘ Science would no longer rely on faith, tradition, the theological canon, and church authority, but would instead be guided by observation and experiment’
What is Plus Ultra?
Plus ultra, represents the idea of continuously striving for more knowledge and pushing beyond the boundaries of current understanding
What is his new Method?
Induction
On the basis of a large class of observations in which A is
(without exception) B, we
conclude that “All A’s are B
What does the new way of learning (as opposed to Aristotelian research) consists of?
a. The application of the principle of induction (1 point): if, without exception, all observed A’s are B, we conclude that all A’s are B
b. the collection of observational or empirical data, that is, the facts, and
this set of facts needs to be as big as possible.
c. Doing experiments: if the number of facts or observations can be
expanded by doing experiments (manipulating conditions and see what happens), we must do so: the more empirical data, the more reliable our inductive
generalizations.
Elaborate on the idols of mind?
In order to establish a science based on accurate knowledge of reality, we need to find the 4 idols (misunderstandings). Idols are false conceptions in our mind
1. Idols of tribe
False ideas in our minds that are the result of the fact that we are human beings (human nature)
2. Idols of den, specsus
False ideas in our minds that are the result of the fact that we are educated in a certain way
3. Idols of marketplace, fori
False ideas in our minds that are the result of the fact that we use language to communicate
3. Idols of theatre
False beliefs that have been passed down through tradition and authority. Bacon argued that these inherited ideas, often rooted in philosophical systems, religious doctrines, or established ideologies
How can idols be used to prove he is not a radical empiricist?
it impossible for Bacon to stick to the idea that there are no innate ideas. Therefore, Bacon cannot be a radical empiricist (like Locke) since the idea of innate ideas is an empiricist idea.
What is Bacon criticism on Aristotle?
Aristoltes did not seek for information from unfettered experiments but used schooled and selected experience to justify his pronouncements. (He made up in his mind what the conclusion would be before the experiment) For Aristotle sense was enough, the natural place was there, observing was enough. In that way it was not good science. Bacon was a bit against the way of thinking of Plato. He found that Plato ideas had to be supported with experiments. If we want to ratio you need to experiment,
- 1) “in Aristotle’s books […] there is
often discussion of experiments. [But
Aristotle] had in fact made up his mind
beforehand, and did not properly
consult experience”
(2) The danger of biases in thinking
and observing
Bacon’s attack on Aristotle
What is the ‘idea’ idea in relations to visuals?
According to the “‘Idea’ idea”, reality is not perceived directly. The senses provide us with input which leads to us having representations or ideas about what we think is really there.
- There is always the ‘veil of
experience’ or the ‘screen of observations’ between us and the real world. So, if
we only have representations of the world, and never have access to the world itself, we do not know whether the representations are true of the world
- That this “‘Idea’ idea” might be plausible is suggested by visual illusions: we think our sensory experiences are true of the real world, but in fact visual illusions show us that what we observe might not be true reality at all
Who is Montaigne?
doubts our knowledge
↓
emphasizing the unreliability of both reasoning and observation, disavowed knowledge. He insisted that the existence of material reality must be doubted. As the images of reality provided by our senses are often illusory, they cannot be trusted → vb. portrait of socrates
Who is René Descartes?
A rationalist
What are Descartes ideas?
- Descartes rejects both Aristotle’s and Bacon’s
empiricism and defends rationalism again: - Reason as the source of knowledge
> Doubt experiment: to see what is real knowledge I need to doubt everything that I can possibly doubt - But I cannot doubt that I am doubting!
(Cogito ergo sum) - If my ideas are clear and distinct, I can be
sure they are true
> Reasoning is the road to knowledge (hence
mathematics, deduction, etc.)
How is the systematic doubt experiment of René Descartes an argument to be a rationalist in epistemology?
- Rationalism says that the only source of knowledge is our reason .
- Descartes arrived at his famous ‘Cogito ergo sum’ by performing his doubt
experiment only using his reason as a source of knowledge. - He tries to doubt whatever he thinks is true and ultimately concludes that he cannot doubt that he doubts when he is doubting. Since doubting is a mode of thinking and since thinking is a mode of being, Descartes concludes ‘I think, therefore I am’
What are examples we can use with the doubt experiment?
The malin génie is the evil demon introduced by Descartes in his doubt experiment. Descartes uses the demon to demonstrate that we cannot even be certain about mathematics. We cannot exclude the possibility that an evil demon is tricking our senses and our reason constantly. Therefore, every knowledge item we seem to have as a result of using our senses and/or our reason can be doubted.
