Lecture 3: curiosity and learning

Question 1

Study showing positive impact of curiosity on memory

Answer 1

Kang et al: Wick in the candle learning

Question 2

Is prior knowledge or curiosity a driver for the memory?

Answer 2

Wade Tested how much knowledge and how it related
The closer their answers were correct (rated by independent judge), the more curious ppts were

However, also a benefit of curiosity

Control for the other and the significant correlations can still be seen

2 independent effects that drive the memory benefit

Question 3

How stable is this memory effect?

Answer 3

Stare et al investigated whether the memory effects short lived? And they were also interested in the role of sleep
Used trivia paradigm
Encoding phase
Memory test phase: 12 hours later
Wake vs sleep conditioning

Results:
Memory benefit of curiosity is always there
= long lasting effect (sleep did not make an impact)
(if confidence - prior knowledge is controlled for, these effects are still present)

Question 4

What are the neural underpinnings of curiosity? Do these explain the memory benefit?

Answer 4

Gruber et al:
Used a subsequent memory analysis - brain activity
Look at dopaminergic and hippocampus

Find in the NAcc that there is a statistical interaction between curiosity and memory: most activity = the greatest memory benefit of curiosity

SN/VTA: main effect: just sees whether it will be remembered or not (not in relation to curiosity)

Hippocampus: more activation when later recalled than in the high curiosity condition (no difference in the low curiosity condition)

Question 5

How do curiosity and emotion enhance learning?

Answer 5

Marvin and Shohamy
Used trivia paradigm
Curiosity was measured: willingness to wait
Tested memory later
Independent raters: how positive, negative, and neutral valence were the answers

Results: All show a linear increase in curiosity

Emotion and curiosity each have an independent effect: emotion has an additive effect but is still motivated by curiosity

Question 6

How do extrinsic motivation and curiosity affect learning?

Answer 6

Duan et al
Trivia paradigm (curiosity and confidence ratings)
Pay ps if they remember trivia immediately after
Low, medium and high reward
NOT told there would be a memory test in the encoding phase

Question 7

Duan et al results

Answer 7

Curiosity modulates memories in a trivia question, independent of reward

Reward: independent of curiosity, there was a memory benefit but this is a lot smaller

Incentivising did not damage the intrinsic motivation (from curiosity)

Question 8

What happens in the brain (duan et al)?

Answer 8

Activity within the dopaminergic circuit (Nacc) is modulated by curiosity and reward

Question 9

What does Murayama and Kubandner find?

Answer 9

Similiar design to Duan et al

Money and curiosity
Immediate and delayed memory test (week)

Results:
Money improved in the delayed memory test

split into high and low curiosity

Low curiosity:
Reward effect - sig difference between money and no money

High curiosity:
No effect of reward
Incentivising by reward did not help the memory

Question 10

How does curiosity impact incidental learning?

Answer 10

Gruber et al

Small memory difference
Faces shown in high curiosity are better remembered than those in the low curiosity - spill over effect

Question 11

How does curiosity impact incidental learning? Brain activity

Answer 11

Nothing in the brain which explains whether faces will be remembered or not (across participants)

BUT, based on individual differences there was a correlation
Sig correlation between the activity between the regions (SN/ VTA) and curiosity memory benefit for the faces

Question 12

Stare et al incidental faces results

Answer 12

Trend that these faces are remembered slightly better in the high curious compared to low curiosity condition

Question 13

What did Murphy et al find about where you present?

Answer 13

Is the dopaminergic explained by: phasic response (short term) =elicitation or slow ramping up (tonic) = satisfaction

Showed face right after the question
Or showed after the answer

Only memory benefit in the early condition = it is the elicitation of curiosity = neural activity is always when the question is presented

Question 14

How does this differ between low and high curiosity?

Answer 14

High curisoity: sig memory benefit regardless of when the faces was presented

Low curiosity: sig memory benefit when shown further away from the question being presented

= benefit is in line with neuroimaging studies which show that the hippocampus more activity in the low curiosity

Question 15

What are information prediction errors?

Answer 15

Post answer satistifaction rating - pre answer curiosity rating

Marvin and Shohamy

Asked how satisfied were you when you received the answer to the question.

IPE modulate memory
positive IPE= memory benefit (independent of curiosity)

Question 16

Marvin and Shohamy: aim

Answer 16

Tested 2 hypotheses:

1. The valence of info affects curiosity and subsequent learning
2. Info prediction errors affect learning

Question 17

Marvin and shohamy method:

Answer 17

84 ppts= 2 day study
Used willingness to wait (objective measure of curiosity)
Trivia paradigm
Rate how curious / satisfied with the answer
Returned approx one week later to be tested again

Question 18

Marvin and Shohamy results

Answer 18

Ppts more likely to wait for questions they were curious about
More likely to wait for positive rather than neutral info
* Ppts likelihood of remembering the answers correctly was predicted by their initial curiosity about the question and the positive valence rated associated with the question
○ = more likely to remember more positive info and info they were more curious about
* Ppts likelihood of remembering an answer correctly was predicted by their curiosity about the question and the information prediction error
= ppts were more likely to remember info for which there was a more positive prediction error (info for which satisfaction was greater than curiosity)

Question 19

Marvin and Shohamy conclusions

Answer 19

• Info, even trivial can function as a reward, guiding choices and learning in predictable ways
  1. Valence of info affects the reward value (more likely to wait for positive info compared to neutral)
  ○ Valence is critical to learning
  ○ Possible role of emotion?
  ○ Curiosity as an arousal state?

2. Memory was better when there was a positive prediction error

Implications of this research:
Can have important implications for educational interventions and learning strategies for children in the classroom
Implications for psychiatric and neurological disorders particularly those that implicate dopaminergic systems such as scz and parkinsons
- Deficiencies in reward processing
- Instructive to learn whether deficits extend to info and if curiosity is diminished in these situations

Question 20

Murayama and Kuhbander study aim

Answer 20

2 hypotheses:

1. Monetary rewards promote delayed but not immediate memory performance
2. Monetary rewards only enhance memory for uninteresting material;

Question 21

Murayama and Kuhbander methods

Answer 21

45 UG students
Randomly assigned to money vs no money condition
Trivia qs presented: half were saved for immediate memory test, half were saved for delayed memory test (1 week later)

Question 22

Murayama and Kuhbander results

Answer 22

Ps in money condition = small advantage in recall performance in immediate test, larger effect for delayed test

Question 22

Murayama and Kuhbander results

Answer 22

Ps in money condition = small advantage in recall performance in immediate test, larger effect for delayed test

Question 22

Murayama and Kuhbander results

Answer 22

Low curiosity:
Reward effect - sig difference between money and no money
This was even larger for those done a week later

High curiosity:
No effect of reward
Incentivizing by reward did not help the memory

Question 23

Gruber and Ranganath: how does curiosity enhance hippocampus-dependent memory?

Answer 23

Proposes a framework that integrates emergent research on curiosity, involving prediction errors, appraisal, curiosity, and exploration (PACE)

Question 24

What is the PACE?

Answer 24

The effects of curiosity can be understood as emerging from a cycle that involved prediction errors, appraisal, curiosity and exploration

1. Curiosity is triggered by significant prediction errors that are appraised as an indicator of info that could be valuable in the future
2. This cycle enhances memory encoding through increased attention, exploration and info seeking
   - it enhances the consolidation of info acquired in a curious state through dopaminergic neuromodulation of the hippocampus

Question 25

What does the PACE framework say curiosity is and how does it influence learning?

Answer 25

Uncertainty is a key driver
Curiosity sig enhances learning and memory

Question 26

What are context-based prediction errors?

Answer 26

Prior knowledge = people can make predictions about the environment
Prediction errors occur when there is little prior knowledge
The hippocampus forms cognitive maps that allow the generation of predictions

Question 27

What are information based prediction errors?

Answer 27

prediction errors can be triggered when an event violates expectations about knowledge of a topic
ACC proposed to be involved in states of cognitive conflict
ACC signals information gaps due to a cognitive conflict that can trigger curiosity

Question 28

What is appraisal role in PACE?

Answer 28

• In the framework, information or environmentally triggered prediction errors might not be sufficient to trigger curiosity
• Under certain circumstances these factors may have the opposite effect and induce anxiety
• We propose that prediction errors and information gaps trigger an appraisal process that determines one’s actions (i.e., inhibition or exploration) along with its subjective experience (i.e., anxiety or curiosity).
• such appraisal is supported by the lateral PFC.

Question 29

How does curiosity trigger dopaminergic neuromodulation in the PACE framework?

Answer 29

Regions in the lateral PFC that we proposed to support appraisal also provide input to the dopaminergic midbrain [substantia nigra/ventral tegmental area (SN/VTA)], the origin of dopamine release

Question 30

How does curiosity enhance hippocampus-dependent encoding and memory consolidation via dopaminergic neuromodulation?

Answer 30

Studies on reward and dopamine have shown that dopamine leads to an immediate attentional bias toward stimuli that have an association with past or future rewards (‘reward-based salience’)

Question 31

How does a PACE cycle influence memory?

Answer 31

1. Curiosity is sparked= curiosity enhances learning via increased attentional processes and retention via enhanced memory consolidation
2. Curiosity shapes learning and memory via dopaminergic functions
3. Within the framework, a PACE cycle will be completed once uncertainty is resolved and curiosity is satisfied by closing an information gap.