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Lecture 3 and 4- Eukaryotic cells Flashcards

Compartmentalisation of eukaryotic cells, functions and major components

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1
Q

What are organelles?

A

Membraneous compartments and other structures that lack membranes but possess distinctive shapes and functions (such as ribosomes)

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2
Q

What defines the roles of different organelles?

A

The chemical reactions that they can carry out

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3
Q

What are the three main features of the nucleus?

A

It contains most of the cell’s DNA
It replicates genetic material
Site of the 1st steps in decoding genetic information
Site of genetic control of the cells activities
Assembly of ribosomes

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4
Q

What are the general functions of the mitochondria?

A

Power house of the cell

Energy stored in the bonds of carbohydrates and fatty acids is converted into a more useful form, ATP

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5
Q

What are lysosomes and vacuoles?

A

Cellular digestive systems in which large molecules are hydrolyzed into usable monomers

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6
Q

What are two purposes of membranes surrounding organelles?

A
  • Keep organelle’s molecules away from other molecules in the cell
  • Regulates the movement of raw materials and products into and out of the organelle
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7
Q

Why was the development of membrane bound organelles important in eukaryotic cells?

A

It gives the ability for eukaryotic cells to specialise and hence form organs and tissues of a complex, multicellular body

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8
Q

What can stains tell us about organelles?

A

Their chemical composition

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9
Q

Explain, in 4 points, the process of cell fractionation.

A
  1. Homogenize tissue in grinder (destroys plasma membrane)
  2. Cell homegenate contains large and small organelles
  3. Centrifuge to separate based on size or density
  4. Heaviest components sink to the bottom
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10
Q

How is information stored within a cell?

A

In a sequence of nucleotides in DNA molecules.

Most DNA resides in the nucleus

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11
Q

What organelle is usually the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell?

A

The nucleus

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12
Q

What is the approximate diameter of a nucleus?

A

5 micrometers

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13
Q

What occurs in the nucleolus?

A

The assembly of ribosomes from RNA and specific proteins

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14
Q

What is nucleus surrounded by?

A

Two membranes that form the nuclear envelope

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15
Q

By what distance are the nuclear membranes separated by?

A

10-20nm

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16
Q

How many nuclear pores are there on a nucleus?

A

3500

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17
Q

What is the function of nuclear pores?

A

To connect the interior of the nucleus with the cytoplasm

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18
Q

What is the structure of the nuclear pores?

A
  • Composed of 100 different proteins interacting hydrophobically
  • Each pore is surrounded by a pore complex
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19
Q

What is the structure of a pore complex?

A

8 large protein aggregates arranged in an octagon surrounding the nuclear pore.

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20
Q

What is a nuclear basket?

A

Protein fibrils on the nuclear side form a basket like structure

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21
Q

How do molecules pass through nuclear pores?

A

Molecules less than 10,000 daltons freely diffuse
Molecules up to 50,000 daltons diffuse slowly
Larger molecules require a short amino acid sequence called a nuclear localisation signal

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22
Q

What evidence is there for the nuclear localisation signal?

A
  • The sequence appears in nuclear proteins but not proteins that remain in the cytoplasm
  • If removed, the protein remains in the cytoplasm
  • If added to a protein, it enters the cytoplasm
  • Some viruses have the signal sequence and enter the cytoplasm, others do not.
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23
Q

How does a signal sequence result in passage through a nuclear pore?

A

Three-dimensional structure binds noncovalently to a protein receptor
The receptor changes shape so the pore stretches and the protein passes through

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24
Q

What organelle is the nuclear envelope continuous with?

A

The endoplasmic reticulum

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25
Q

What is the name of the fibrous complex that occurs when DNA combines with a protein?

A

Chromatin

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26
Q

What does chromatin aggregate into before cell division?

A

chromosomes

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27
Q

What surrounds chromatin?

A

Water and dissolved substances called the nucleoplasm

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28
Q

What organises the chromatin?

A

The nuclear matrix (structural proteins)

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29
Q

What is chromatin attached to at the edge of the nucleus?

A

The nuclear lamina- formed from lamins into filaments

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30
Q

What is the purpose of the lamina?

A

Maintain the shape of the nucleus by attaching to the nuclear envelope and chromatin

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31
Q

Where are ribosomes found within prokaryotic cells?

A

Free floating

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32
Q

Where are ribosomes found within eukaryotic cells?

A

The cytoplasm- free or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum,
and inside the mitochondria and chloroplasts

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33
Q

What are ribosomes?

A

The sites where proteins are synthesised under the direction of the nucleic acids

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34
Q

How are eukaryotic and prokaryotic ribosomes similar?

A

They are made up of two different-sized subunits

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35
Q

What type of molecule are ribosomes made up of?

A

ribosomal RNA bound noncovalently to 50 proteins

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36
Q

What are the components of the endomembrane system?

A

The endoplasmic reticulum, golgi body, lysosomes, vesicles, nucleus

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37
Q

How large is the endomembrane system?

A

Much of the volume of the cell is taken up by this system

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38
Q

What is the endomembrane system?

A

A group of interrelated organelles

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39
Q

How is the endoplasmic reticulum viewed?

A

Through an electron mircograph

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40
Q

What is the structure of the endoplasmic reticulum?

A

A network of interconnected membranes braching through the cytoplasm forming tubes and flattened sacs

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41
Q

What is the lumen?

A

The interior of the endoplasmic reticulum

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42
Q

How much of the volume of the cell can the ER enclose?

A

Up to 10%

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43
Q

What is the rough endoplasmic reticulum?

A

The ER that is studded with ribosomes that are temporarily attatched

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44
Q

What are the functions of the rough ER?

A
  • Segregates certain newly synthesised proteins and transports them to other locations within the cell
  • Inside, proteins can be chemically modified so alter function/destination
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45
Q

What do the ribosomes attached to the ER do?

A

Synthesize proteins that function outside of the cytosol (proteins transported out of cell, or into membrane or endomembrane system)

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46
Q

Where do proteins synthesized by ribosomes attached to the ER go after they are synthesized?

A

Into the lumen of the ER

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47
Q

How do proteins enter the ER after being synthesized by ribosomes on its surface?

A

A sequence of amino acids on the protein act as an RER localisation signal

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48
Q

What happens to proteins after they have entered the RER?

A

They undergo changes- including: tertiary folding and formation of disulfide bridges

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49
Q

What type of molecule do proteins become after gaining carbohydrate groups in the RER?

A

Glycoproteins- these can act as an addressing system in lysosomes

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50
Q

What is the structure of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

A 
More tubular (less like flattened sacs)
Lack ribosomes
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51
Q

What happens to proteins that were synthesized in the RER inside the lumen of the SER?

A

They are chemically modified

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52
Q

What are the three main roles of the SER?

A
  • Chemically modifying small molecules taken in by the cell (drugs, pesticides)
  • Site of hydrolysis of glycogen in animal cells
  • Site of lipid and steroid synthesis
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53
Q

What do cells that synthesize a lot of proteins have lots of?

A

Endoplasmic reticulum

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54
Q

Give examples of cells with many endoplasmic reticulum

A

Glandular cells- secrete digestive enzymes

White blood cells- secrete antibodies

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55
Q

What type of cell has many smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Liver cells- these modify molecules that enter the body from the digestive system

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56
Q

What is the shape of the Golgi apparatus?

A

Flattened membranous stacks piled like saucers with small membrane-enclosed vesicles

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57
Q

What are the name of the membranous sacs that make up the golgi apparatus?

A

Cisternae

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58
Q

How long is the golgi apparatus?

A

1 micrometer

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59
Q

What are the three main roles of the golgi apparatus?

A
  • Receive proteins from ER and further modify them
  • Concentrate, package and sort proteins before sending (cellular or extracellular)
  • Synthesis of some polysaccharides in the plant wall
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60
Q

Where is the golgi apparatus in plants, protists, fungi and many invertebrates within the cell?

A

Scattered throughout the cytoplasm

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61
Q

How is the golgi apparatus differently arranged in vertebrate cells?

A

Fewer stacks form larger, single, more complex golgi body

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62
Q

What are the three functionally distinct parts of the golgi body?

A

Bottom
Middle
Top

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63
Q

What does the bottom cisternae of the golgi apparatus lie closest to and what region is it?

A

Closest to nucleus/patch of RER

The cis region

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64
Q

What does the middle cisternae of the golgi apparatus make up?

A

The medial region

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65
Q

What does the top cisternae of the golgi apparatus lie closest to and what region is it in?

A

Lies closest to the surface of the cell

The trans region

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66
Q

How are the three parts of the golgi apparatus different?

A

They contain different enzymes and perform different functions

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67
Q

How do proteins remain segregated from the cytoplasm from the ER to the golgi apparatus?

A

The ER buds off a membranous vesicle containing the protein

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68
Q

What happens once a vesicle reaches the golgi apparatus?

A

The membranes fuse and releases protein

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69
Q

Where do vesicles that bud off of the trans regions go?

A

Carry their contents away from the golgi apparatus

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70
Q

Where do lysosomes originate from?

A

The golgi apparatus

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71
Q

What do lysosomes contain?

A

Digestive enzymes

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72
Q

What are lysosomes the site of?

A

Macromolecules (proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, lipids) are hydrolysed into their monomers

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73
Q

How big are lysosomes?

A

1 micometer in diameter

74
Q

How many lysosomes are their in a cell?

A

Dozens, depending on needs

75
Q

How do food and foreign objects enter the cell?

A

Phagocytosis- pocket that forms in membrane is called phagosome

76
Q

What is the function of lysosomes?

A

Site of break down of food and foreign objects

77
Q

How does the lysosome digest a phagosome?

A

The primary lysosome fuses its membrane with the phagosome. This forms a secondary lysosome in which digestion occurs.

78
Q

What makes the secondary lysosome break down its contents?

A
  • Digestive enzymes

- Slightly more acidic environment

79
Q

What happens to the products of lysosome break down?

A

They diffuse through the lysosome membrane and provide raw materials for other cell processes

80
Q

What happens after a secondary lysosome is finished?

A

It fuses with the plasma membrane and releases undigested contents into the environment

81
Q

What is the process by which lysosomes digest the cells own materials?

A

Autophagy

82
Q

What cells don’t have lysosomes?

A

Plant cells- the vacuole may function equivalently

83
Q

What do cells use energy for?

A

Growth, reproduction, movement

84
Q

Where does the break down of fuel molecules start in eukaryotic cells?

A

The cytosol

85
Q

Where do partially degraded molecules enter?

A

The mitochondria

86
Q

What is the main function of the mitochondria?

A

Convert potential chemical energy of fuel molecules into a form the cell can use (ATP)

87
Q

What is cellular respiration?

A

The process of converting fuel molecules and oxygen into ATP

88
Q

What is the diameter and length of mitochondria?

A

1.5 micrometers diameter

2-8 micrometers long

89
Q

How many mitochondria are there in cells?

A 
One (some unicellular protists)
Hundred thousand (large egg cells)

Typical humans liver cell- more than 1000

90
Q

How many membranes do mitochondria have?

A

2- the outer and inner

91
Q

What does the outer membrane of the mitochondria do?

A

Smooth and protective

Offers little resistance to movement of substances in and out

92
Q

What is the structure of the inner membrane of the mitochondria?

A

Folds inwards in many places (larger surface area)

Folds–> regular shelf like structures called cristae

93
Q

What is embedded in the folds of the inner mitochondrial membrane?

A

Large protein complexes involved in cellular respiration

94
Q

What space is enclosed by inner and outer mitochondrial membranes?

A

The mitochondrial matrix

95
Q

What does the mitochondrial matrix contain?

A

Enzymes

Ribosomes and DNA to make proteins needed for cellular respiration

96
Q

What are plastids?

A 
A class of organelles
Found only in plants and certain protists
97
Q

What is chloroplast?

A

A type of plastid
Contains green pigment chlorophyll
Site of photosynthesis

98
Q

What happens during photosynthesis?

A

Light energy is converted into chemical energy of bonds between atoms

99
Q

What is the purpose of photosynthetic products?

A

Provide food for photosynthetic organisms and the organisms that eat them

100
Q

What is the structure of a chloroplast?

A

Variable size/shape
Two membranes
Internal membranes that differ among organisms

101
Q

What do the internal membranes of chloroplasts look like?

A

Stacks of flat, hollow pita bread called grana

102
Q

What do grana consist of?

A

A series of flat, closely packed circular compartments called thylakoids

103
Q

What do thylakoid membranes contain?

A

Phospholipids
Proteins
Light harvesting pigments

104
Q

How are thylakoids connected?

A

Thlakoids of one granum are connected to those of other grana (membrane network)

105
Q

What is the fluid surrounding grana?

A

Stroma

106
Q

What is in the stroma?

A

Ribosomes and DNA

107
Q

What do ribosomes and DNA in the stroma do?

A

Synthesise some proteins that make up the chloroplast

108
Q

What are two other types of plastids?

A

Chromoplasts

Leucoplasts

109
Q

What colour are chromoplasts?

A

Red, orange and /or yellow pigments

110
Q

What do chromoplasts do?

A

Give colour to plant organs such as flowers

111
Q

What do leucoplasts do?

A

Storage deposits for starches and fats

112
Q

What are peroxisomes?

A

Organelles that collect toxic peroxides (hydrogen peroxide for example)

113
Q

Where do toxic peroxides come from?

A

Unavoidable by-products of cellular chemical reactions

114
Q

How big are peroxisomes?

A

0.2 to 1.7 micrometers

115
Q

What type of membrane do peroxisomes have?

A

Single membrane

116
Q

What is inside a peroxisome?

A

Granular interior containing specialized enzymes

117
Q

Where can peroxisomes be found?

A

Found (at one time or another) in (at least some cells of) all eukaryotic species

118
Q

What similar to peroxisome structure can be found only in plant cells?

A

Glyoxysome

119
Q

Where are glyoxysomes most prominent?

A

Young plants where stored lipids are converted to carbohydrates

120
Q

What have vacuoles?

A

Many eukaryotic cells- plants and protists in particular

121
Q

What do vacuoles contain?

A

Aqueous solutions containing dissolved substances

122
Q

What are the 4 functions of plant vacuoles?

A
  • Storage
  • Structure
  • Reproduction
  • Digestion
123
Q

How does storage in vacuoles contribute to the survival of plants?

A

Toxic and waste by products are stored in vacuoles which is poisonous/distasteful and deters animals

124
Q

How does the vacuole contribute to plant structure?

A

90% of cell volume is taken up

Vacuole causes water to enter the cell which swells, providing turgor (stiffness) to support plant

125
Q

How do vacuoles help plants to reproduce?

A

Some pigments (blue and pink) called anthocyanins are contained in the vacuole and attract pollinating/dispersal animals

126
Q

Where are food vacuoles found?

A

Some simple ancient groups of eukaryotes (single celled protists, sponges)

127
Q

What are food vacuoles for?

A

No digestive system, cells engulf food particles by phagocytosis, generating food vacuole which fuses with a lysosome for digestion

128
Q

Where are contractile vacuoles found?

A

Freshwater protists

129
Q

What do contractile vacuoles do?

A

Get rid of excess water that rushes into the cell because of solute potential

130
Q

How does the contractile vacuole expel water?

A

It expands as water enters, then abruptly contracts.

Forces water through special pore structure

131
Q

What is the cytoskeleton?

A

Long thin fibers

132
Q

What are the roles of the cytoskeleton?

A
  • Supports shape
  • Movement
  • Position organelles
  • Tracks or support for motor proteins
  • Anchors cell in place
133
Q

What two methods show if a structure or process causes a function?

A
  • Inhibition

- Mutation

134
Q

How does inhibition prove a structure or process causes a function?

A

Drug inhibits the structure or process- if the function does not occur then the structure/process is probably a causative factor

135
Q

How does mutation prove a structure or process causes a function?

A

Look at cells that lack the structure or process and see if the function still occurs

136
Q

What drug breaks apart the microfilaments of the cytoskeleton of an amoeboid cell?

A

Cytochalasin B

137
Q

What happens when an amoeboid cell is treated with cytochalasin B?

A

It rounds up and does not move

138
Q

What three components make up the cytoskeleton?

A

Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules

139
Q

How do microfilaments exist?

A

Single, in bundles or in networks

140
Q

What is the diameter of a microfilament?

A

7 nanometers

141
Q

What are the two major roles of microfilaments?

A

Help entire cell or parts move

Determine and stabilize cell shape

142
Q

What are microfilaments made from?

A

Actin- a protein that exists in several forms

143
Q

What is the structure of actin in microfilaments?

A

Extensively folded with plus and minus ends which interact to form long, double helix chains

144
Q

What is the polymerisation of actin in microfilaments?

A

Reversible

145
Q

What does actin produce in non-muscle cells?

A

Cytoplasmic streaming
Pinching that divides cells
Psuedopodia (false feet that enable movement)

146
Q

What is cytoplasmic streaming?

A

Flowing movement of cytoplasm

147
Q

How do actin filaments support cell shape?

A

Microfilaments form a meshwork inside plasma membrane which cross link and forms rigid structure

148
Q

Where do microfilaments form a meshwork?

A

Microvilli that line human intestine

149
Q

How many types of intermediate filaments are there?

A

At least 50- specific to cell type

150
Q

How many molecular classes do intermediate filaments fall into?

A

6, based on amino acid structure

151
Q

What are intermediate filaments composed of?

A

Fibrous proteins in keratin family

152
Q

How are intermediate filaments arranged?

A

Tough, rope-like assemblages, 8-12 nm in diameter

153
Q

What are the two structural functions of intermediate filaments?

A

Stabilize cell structure

Resist tension

154
Q

What do some intermediate filaments do?

A

Radiate from nucleus and maintain position of nucleus and organelles

155
Q

Give an example of intermediate filaments.

A

Lamins of nuclear lamina

156
Q

Give an example of intermediate filaments maintaining rigidity of body surface tissues.

A

Connecting spot welds, desmosomes, between adjacent cells

157
Q

What are microtubules?

A

Long, hollow, unbranched cylinders

158
Q

What is the diameter if microtubules?

A

25nm

159
Q

What are the two roles of microtubules?

A
  • Form rigid internal skeleton in some cells

- Framework along which motor proteins can move structures

160
Q

What are microtubules assembled from?

A

Tubulin (a protein)- made up of alpha and beta tubulin

161
Q

What is tubulin?

A

A dimer- made of two monomers

162
Q

What is the structure of a microtubule?

A

13 chains of tubulin dimers surround central cavity with a + and - end

163
Q

Why are tubulin known as dynamic structures?

A

Tubulin dimers can be added or subtracted rapidly, mainly at the + end (lengthens and shortens)

164
Q

Where do microtubules radiate from?

A

Microtubule organising center

165
Q

What do microtubules do in plants?

A

Help control arrangement of cellulose fibers of the cell wall

166
Q

What are motor proteins?

A

Specialized molecules that use energy to change their shape and move

167
Q

What are microtubules essential in during cell division?

A

Distributing daughter chromosomes

168
Q

What are eukaryotic cilia and flagella made from?

A

Specialized microtubules- idential internal structure, differ only in length and beating pattern

169
Q

What are some characteristics of cilia?

A

Shorter than flagella
Present in great numbers
Beat stiffly in one direction, recovery flexibly in other direction

170
Q

What are some characteristics of eukaryotic flagella?

A

Longer than cilia
Found singly or in pairs
Waves of ending propogates from one end to the other

171
Q

What is the structure of eukaryotic cilia/flagella?

A

9 + 2 array
9 fused pairs of microtubules (doublets) to form outer cylinder
1 unfused pair up the middle

172
Q

What is at the base of every cilia/flagella?

A

Basal body in the cytoplasm

173
Q

What are centrioles?

A

Found in microtubule organising center- almost idential to basal bodies.
Not found in plants or protists

174
Q

What are centrioles involved in?

A

Formation of mitotic spindle to which chromosomes attach

175
Q

What is the movement of cilia/flagella the result of?

A

Sliding microtubule doublets past each other

176
Q

What motor protein causes microtubules to slide past each other?

A

Dynein

177
Q

How does dynein work?

A

It is attached to one microtubule doublet and then binds to its neighbor and changes shape

178
Q

What motor protein carries vesicles from one part of a cell to another?

A

Kinesin

179
Q

How does kinesin move proteins to other parts of a cell?

A

Binds to vesicle or organelle and then walks it along microtubule by changing shape

180
Q

What molecule moves attached organelles towards the plus end of the microtubule?

A

kinesin

181
Q

What molecule moves attached organelles towards the minus end of the microtubule?

A

Dynein

Biology 2 (14 decks)

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