Lecture 2 - Reasoning Flashcards
What are the two kinds of reasoning
Deductive
Inductive
What is deductive reasoning
Drawing conclusions that are logically certain, provided the premises are true
Top-down logic
What is inductive reasoning
Drawing conclusions that are probable, but not certain, as they are based on the strength of the evidence
Bottom-up logic
What is conditional reasoning
Type of deductive reasoning that involves reasoning about the conditions under which certain statements are true
Why do people make mistakes according to Braine (1978)
People can reason logically, but often fail to understand formal, logical tasks
fail to utilise logic in irl tasks
Why do people make mistakes according to Woodworth & Sells, (1935)
People do not reason logically
Why do people make mistakes according to Oaksford & Chater (1994)
We should not expect people to reason in line with formal logic
What are the 3 theories of deductive reasoning
Abstract-rule theories
Mental models
Dual systems approach
What is the abstract rule theory
Braine (1978)
People use abstract, generalised rules to guide their reasoning processes
These rules are often derived from past experiences and learned patterns
How can we improve performance
Performance can be improved by presenting additional clarifying sentences (to reduce comprehension errors)
Braine et al, 1984
How does the abstract rule theory explain the common errors made in reasoning tasks
Overgeneralisation
Misapplication of rules
Confirmation bias
What is the mental model theory
Johnson-Laird 1999
Everyday comprehension processes are used on reasoning problems
Reasoning involves examination of mental model and/or attempts to create alternative models
What is the principle of truth
Johnson-Laird (1999)
Conclusions are drawn based off mental models and people are hesitant to create more after already making an initial one
“individuals … tend to construct mental
models to represent explicitly only what is true”
What is a weakness of the mental models theory
Newstead et al. (1999)
- Ppl should consider more conclusions in problems where more mental models are created
- Gave tasks permitting one or several mental models
- Truth is that No diff in number of conclusions considered
What are the common errors made in reasoning tasks according to mental models theory
Cognitive load
Sequential reasoning
what is the dual systems approach
Reasoning involves two systems
system 1 is fast (heuristics)
system 2 is slow (logic)
How does the dual systems approach explain the common errors made in reasoning tasks
Overreliance on intuition (1)
Emotional Bias (1)
Analysis Paralysis (2)
What evidence is there that thematic materials help reasoning
Griggs & Cox (1982)
in the card flipping over task, when using info that ppl are more familiar with. rates of successful reasoning increase
Memory cuing hypothesis
Deductive Reasoning Summary
- Drawing conclusions that are logically certain, provided the premises are true
- People make characteristic errors in deductive reasoning
- Attributed to:
-Failure to understand task
-Lack of logical approach
-Tendency towards probabilistic approach in line w/ irl reasoning
What is the 2-4-6 task
Wason (1966)
3 digits in any ascending order of magnitude
pps suggest numbers and are told yes or no if they fit the rule
they try to figure out what the rule is
How does the 2-4-6 have anything to do with anything
Wasons’s selection tasks reveals the tendancy to seek confirmation and avoid disconfirmation.
This impacts are reasoning abilities through:
* Overconfidence in Beliefs
* Resistance to Change
What is interesting about disconfirmatory hypotheses
Mynatt et al (1977)
Tweney et al (1980, E1)
Performance does not improve when
specifically instructed to use a
disconfirmatory approach
What is an example of disconfirmatory evidence in fields outside of psychology
What is a reason why disconfirmatory evidence is still avoided irl
Mitroff (1974)
- Majority of NASA scientists (N = 40) interviewed were highly committed to confirming their own theoretical positions
- Argued that w/out it, many good, new, but undeveloped ideas would die as a result of premature falsification
- The scientists who held such views were rated as especially prominent & successful by their peers
Even when faced with disconfirmatory evidence, confirmation bias is real
Scientists use copium for justifying their arguments
-even when wrong because “it helps their ability in the future to produce correct hypotheses”
What is an important point when talking about lab studies regarding inductive reasoning
Lab based studies have a broad rule with subjects needing to get less specific
IRL ppl start with specific rules and broaden their horizons to consider things when reasoning
