Lecture 2 - Reasoning Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two kinds of reasoning

A

Deductive

Inductive

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2
Q

What is deductive reasoning

A

Drawing conclusions that are logically certain, provided the premises are true

Top-down logic

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3
Q

What is inductive reasoning

A

Drawing conclusions that are probable, but not certain, as they are based on the strength of the evidence

Bottom-up logic

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4
Q

What is conditional reasoning

A

Type of deductive reasoning that involves reasoning about the conditions under which certain statements are true

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5
Q

Why do people make mistakes according to Braine (1978)

A

People can reason logically, but often fail to understand formal, logical tasks

fail to utilise logic in irl tasks

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6
Q

Why do people make mistakes according to Woodworth & Sells, (1935)

A

People do not reason logically

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7
Q

Why do people make mistakes according to Oaksford & Chater (1994)

A

We should not expect people to reason in line with formal logic

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8
Q

What are the 3 theories of deductive reasoning

A

Abstract-rule theories
Mental models
Dual systems approach

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9
Q

What is the abstract rule theory

Braine (1978)

A

People use abstract, generalised rules to guide their reasoning processes

These rules are often derived from past experiences and learned patterns

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10
Q

How can we improve performance

A

Performance can be improved by presenting additional clarifying sentences (to reduce comprehension errors)

Braine et al, 1984

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11
Q

How does the abstract rule theory explain the common errors made in reasoning tasks

A

Overgeneralisation
Misapplication of rules
Confirmation bias

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12
Q

What is the mental model theory

Johnson-Laird 1999

A

Everyday comprehension processes are used on reasoning problems

Reasoning involves examination of mental model and/or attempts to create alternative models

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13
Q

What is the principle of truth

Johnson-Laird (1999)

A

Conclusions are drawn based off mental models and people are hesitant to create more after already making an initial one

“individuals … tend to construct mental
models to represent explicitly only what is true”

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14
Q

What is a weakness of the mental models theory

Newstead et al. (1999)

A
  • Ppl should consider more conclusions in problems where more mental models are created
  • Gave tasks permitting one or several mental models
  • Truth is that No diff in number of conclusions considered
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15
Q

What are the common errors made in reasoning tasks according to mental models theory

A

Cognitive load

Sequential reasoning

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16
Q

what is the dual systems approach

A

Reasoning involves two systems
system 1 is fast (heuristics)
system 2 is slow (logic)

17
Q

How does the dual systems approach explain the common errors made in reasoning tasks

A

Overreliance on intuition (1)

Emotional Bias (1)

Analysis Paralysis (2)

18
Q

What evidence is there that thematic materials help reasoning

A

Griggs & Cox (1982)

in the card flipping over task, when using info that ppl are more familiar with. rates of successful reasoning increase

Memory cuing hypothesis

19
Q

Deductive Reasoning Summary

A
  • Drawing conclusions that are logically certain, provided the premises are true
  • People make characteristic errors in deductive reasoning
  • Attributed to:
    -Failure to understand task
    -Lack of logical approach
    -Tendency towards probabilistic approach in line w/ irl reasoning
20
Q

What is the 2-4-6 task

A

Wason (1966)

3 digits in any ascending order of magnitude

pps suggest numbers and are told yes or no if they fit the rule

they try to figure out what the rule is

21
Q

How does the 2-4-6 have anything to do with anything

A

Wasons’s selection tasks reveals the tendancy to seek confirmation and avoid disconfirmation.

This impacts are reasoning abilities through:
* Overconfidence in Beliefs
* Resistance to Change

22
Q

What is interesting about disconfirmatory hypotheses

A

Mynatt et al (1977)
Tweney et al (1980, E1)

Performance does not improve when
specifically instructed to use a
disconfirmatory approach

23
Q

What is an example of disconfirmatory evidence in fields outside of psychology

What is a reason why disconfirmatory evidence is still avoided irl

A

Mitroff (1974)

  • Majority of NASA scientists (N = 40) interviewed were highly committed to confirming their own theoretical positions
  • Argued that w/out it, many good, new, but undeveloped ideas would die as a result of premature falsification
  • The scientists who held such views were rated as especially prominent & successful by their peers

Even when faced with disconfirmatory evidence, confirmation bias is real

Scientists use copium for justifying their arguments
-even when wrong because “it helps their ability in the future to produce correct hypotheses”

24
Q

What is an important point when talking about lab studies regarding inductive reasoning

A

Lab based studies have a broad rule with subjects needing to get less specific

IRL ppl start with specific rules and broaden their horizons to consider things when reasoning