Lecture 2 - Models of Psychopathology

Question 1

What is the purpose of models in psychopathology?

Answer 1

Models are used to explain:
Origins of abnormal behaviour
How to treat abnormal behaviour
How to prevent abnormal behaviour

Question 2

What are the five models of psychology and psychopathology?

Answer 2

Biological (physiological, neurochemical factors)
Psychodynamic (internal unconscious factors)
Humanistic/existential (internal conscious factors)
Behavioural (interaction of social & psychological factors)
Cognitive (cognitions)

Question 3

What is the biomedical model?

Answer 3

The biomedical model uses genetics, the endocrine system, neuroanatomy and biochemistry as its aetiology and studies gene-environment interactions.

Question 4

What are some of the methods and designs associated with the biomedical model?

Answer 4

Pedigree Method
Proband identified
How prevalent is the disorder in their family?
Nature versus nurture?

Twin-Design:
Compares concordance rates for MZ and DZ twins.
Differ in their genetic similarity, but not their likelihood of sharing the same environmental experiences
If MZ > DZ: genetic contributions
If MZ = DZ and both show high concordance; shared environmental contributions.
If MZ = DZ, and both show low concordance; non-shared environment contributions.

Adoption Studies:
Compares the concordance of adopted children to their biological versus their adoptive relatives

Molecular Genetics:
Genetic association studies
Candidate gene studies
Is one allele of a candidate gene more frequently seen in people with the disorder than in people without the disorder?
ApoE-e4: 37% of people with AD vs. 14% in general population
Genome wide association studies
Assess common variation across the entire genome

Question 5

What are neurotransmitters?

Answer 5

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are released into the synapse between two neurons that carry signals from the terminal bouton of one neuron to the receptors of another.
Most drugs used to treat mental disorders either increase or decrease the activity of neurotransmitters. - However, it’s important to remember that the functions of neurotransmitters are quite broad and therefore, drugs can affect things other than the intended behaviour etc.

Question 6

What are the four neurotransmitter symptoms?

Answer 6

Serotonin
GABA (Gamma Aminobutyric Acid)
Noradrenaline
Dopamine

Question 7

Serotonin:

Answer 7

Serotonin system regulates behaviour, mood & thought processes 
Low serotonin activity associated with:
Aggression
Suicide
Impulsive overeating
Hyper-sexual behaviour

Drugs that primarily affect the serotonin system:
Tricyclic antidepressants
Serotonin specific reuptake inhibitors (e.g., Prozac)

Question 8

Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

Answer 8

Inhibits a variety of behaviours & emotions
Seems to reduce overall arousal
Anxiolytic (anti-panic or anti-anxiety agent) effects

Benzodiazepines make it easier for GABA molecules to attach themselves to the receptors of specialised neurons.

Question 9

Noradrenalin

Answer 9

Secreted by adrenal glands

Noradrenalin circuits in the CNS:
Hindbrain, in an area that controls basic bodily functions such as respiration
Another circuit influences the emergency reactions or alarm responses that occur when we suddenly find ourselves in a very dangerous situation.
Has been implicated in some disorders.

Question 10

Dopamine

Answer 10

Dopamine circuits merge and cross with serotonin circuits - influence many of the same behaviours
Relays messages to control movements, mood and thought processes
Parkinson’s disease: dopamine-producing cells damaged.

Question 11

How can neuroanatomy be understood as an aetiology?

Answer 11

Specific disturbances may result from damage to specific areas of the brain
Examples:
Damage to the reticular activating system in the mid-brain (regulates sleep/waking) leads to disturbances in sexual behaviour, aggression & sleep
Damage to the orbitofrontal cortex often leads to disinhibited behaviour

Note:
Hindbrain
Bodily functions involved in sustaining life, regulation of stages of sleep
Midbrain
Involved in regulation of some motor activities (fighting & sex), and sleep
Forebrain
Site of most sensory, emotional, & cognitive functioning
Limbic system

Question 12

How does the endocrine system work? (HYPAC)

Answer 12

HYPAC axis is where the hypothalamus and endocrine system interact and controls reactions to stress

Hypothalamus connects to the adjacent pituitary gland – which is the co-ordinator of the endocrine system

The pituitary gland, in turn, may stimulate the cortical (outer part) of the adrenal glands to produce:
Surges of adrenalin
Cortisol (the stress hormone)

Question 13

Who is Peter Gotzche?

Answer 13

Theorist/author/physician and scientific researcher who is very anti medication and believes that drug companies are corrupt and gives evidence that prescription drugs are the third leading cause of death and heart disease and cancer. Asserts that few people benefit from medical treatment using drugs.

Question 14

Psychodynamic Model:

Answer 14

Asserts that there are five overlapping stages of psychosexual development:
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latent
Genital

Question 15

What is repression?

Answer 15

Freud (1915) found that some events and desires were often too frightening or painful for his patients to acknowledge, and believed such information was locked away in the unconscious mind. This can happen through the process of repression.

Question 16

What are Freud’s defence mechanisms?

Answer 16

Repression - events and desires that are too frightening or painful are locked away in the subconscious.
Denial - the individual refuses to experience or acknowledge painful realities or events.
Sublimation - satisfying an impulse or expressing basic impulses or desires in a socially acceptable way e.g. expressing anger through sport.
Projection - placing one’s personal emotions etc. on another. E.g. justifying hating someone by believing that they in fact hate you.
Displacement - satisfying an impulse with a substitute object in a non-socially acceptable way. E.g. expressing frustration with one’s boss by kicking a dog.
Regression - displaying prior developmental behaviours in a time of stress. E.g. a child may begin to wet the bed again when under stress.

Question 17

What is observational learning?

Answer 17

(Bandura): Learning cannot be understood in conditioning terms but also requires extra assumptions. Believes that learning requires an observer to attend to a behaviour and must understand a connection between the behaviour and its reinforcement. The observer must also be able to remember this information and capable of replicating the behaviour. This means that there must be cognitive abilities to be able to observe, remember, recall and replicate. These are referred to as non-observable processes (cognitive processes).

Question 18

What are Ellis’ 10 Irrational Beliefs?

Answer 18

Ellis’ 10 Irrational Beliefs are a series of maladaptive core beliefs developed by Ellis who asserted that the more a person believes in these core beliefs, the worse the state of their mental health will be. Examples:
“I must be loved, or at least liked, and approved by every significant person I meet.”
“I must be completely competent, make no mistakes, and achieve in every possible way, if I am to be worthwhile.”