Lecture 2: Ethics from Antiquity to the present

Question 1

Who were the ones who focused on ethics as a form of applied philosophy?

Answer 1

Leaders of ancient Athens, particularly teachers like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were the ones who focused on ethics.

Question 2

What were people drawn towards Athens in the fifth century?

Answer 2

1. people wanted a better life
2. being able to engage in trade and commerce
3. rich architecture, poetry, dram, religion practices, politics & school philosophy
4. study w/ brilliant teachers, dramatists, historians, the father of medicine, renowned but mysterious Socrates.

Question 3

What is virtue ethics?

Answer 3

It is an ethical system based upon the exercise of certain virtues emphasizing the formation of character.

Question 4

What does Teleology (Telos) from Greek means?

Answer 4

It means goal or aims, is the study of ends & the means directed towards those ends.

Question 4

What does Teleology (Telos) from Greek means?

Answer 4

It means goal or aims, is the study of ends & the means directed towards those ends.

Question 5

What does Aristotle think the telos (goal/aim) of human beings?

Answer 5

Aristotle believed it to be eudaimonia (happiness). He considers happiness to not be wealth but character through the exercise of function that distinguishes humans from the natural worlds.

Question 6

According to Aristotle, how is eudaimonia achieved?

Answer 6

It can be achieved by leading a virtuous (moral) life, which is attained over time.

Question 7

What are the 2 types of virtues identified by Aristotle?

Answer 7

1. Intellectual virtues - knowledge, wisdom and prudence or practical wisdom.
2. Moral virtues - courage, self-control, liberality, magnificence, honor, patience and amiability (friendliness).

Question 8

What did Aristotle say about intellectual virtues?

Answer 8

• practical wisdom acts as a guide to behavior (a person acted prudently based on the wisdom gained over time through ongoing acquisition & testing of knowledge)
• prudence is the MOST crucial as it helped individuals avoid excess & deficiency and arrive at the golden mean between the two.
• prudence also means common sense and practical wisdom which helps individuals make the right decision in the right way at the right time and for the right reason.

Question 9

What are the differences between intellectual and moral virtues?

Answer 9

Intellectual virtues are acquired purely through learning & experience. Whereas moral virtues are acquired through practice and development of habits.

Question 9

What are the differences between intellectual and moral virtues?

Answer 9

Intellectual virtues are acquired purely through learning & experience. Whereas moral virtues are acquired through practice and development of habits.

Question 10

What is magnanimous?

Answer 10

It refers to someone for whom fame & wealth held little attraction. This type of person has self-knowledge, not rash, quick to anger or submissive to others and acted w/ self-respect, control and prudence. Achieved happiness by leading a life characterized by reason & will.

Question 11

In Athenian society, how was business conducted?

Answer 11

It was conducted competently and ethically.

Question 12

What did Greeks considered the exercise of greed as?

Answer 12

They considered greed to be irrational and therefore dishonorable.

Question 13

What are the characteristics of a man who is good at deliberation (consideration) ?

Answer 13

One who can aim, by the help of his own calculation at the best of goods attainable.

Question 14

For Athenians, what does acting in a calculative way indicates?

Answer 14

It is an indication of dishonor.

Question 15

How is reputation formed?

Answer 15

Reputation is no accident. It is the product of a culture formed by individual & group effort which is directed, intentional and ongoing.

Question 16

What is the virtue of Confucius?

Answer 16

It emphasizes on relationships. It determines how relationship-determining person can live well w/ others.

Question 17

What did Confucius meant when he called for “a return to li?”

Answer 17

It meant doing tasks in collaboration w/ others to achieve the mission of the organization. When the correct rituals were followed in the right way, w/ the right intention for the right end, all is well. “Li” also emphasized on the ground between deficiency and excess. “Nothing in excess”. Everything should be done moderately and not excessively.

Question 18

What did scholars like Aristotle and Confucius stressed on?

Answer 18

They stressed the virtuous life in his ethical systems, w/ the goals of creating “junzi” aka a person who was gracious, magnanimous, and cultured (a flourishing human being).

Question 19

How did Confucius goal?

Answer 19

He believed people were inherently good and that the way to stop inhuman behavior was to make them even better, or more human.

Question 20

What were the 3 means that Confucius identified to make people better?

Answer 20

1. Whole-hearted sincerity & truthfulness - humans needed to be more than sincere (humans had to be loyal to truth)
2. Constant mean - balance between excess & deficiency in an existential and practical sense (5 great relationships: parent, child, husband, wife, senior, junior, master, apprentice, ruler, subject.
3. Expediency - righteousness as the virtue that would temper compassion & love so that people could live together peacefully and justly.

Question 21

What does Confucius say about “quan”?

Answer 21

It is applied when weighing options in a moral dilemma & acts as a counterbalance to achieve fairness, so that parties in a transaction can arrive at an equitable agreement. Allowing them to be more human.

Question 22

What is one common thing that Confucius and Aristotle had in common?

Answer 22

It is the character of the person or persons making decisions.

Question 23

What is Aristotle and Confucius’s ultimate aim?

Answer 23

Aristotle aims is happiness, whereas Confucius aims harmony.

Question 24

According to Aristotelian and Confucian teachings, what are the benefits of training and education?

Answer 24

• It helps to internalize us more altruistic (selfless) business practices
• permits greater integration between our personal and professional understandings of the way we should treat friends, family, customers and clients
• treat each other with honesty and respect no matter who we are

Question 25

What is utilitarianism?

Answer 25

It emphasizes the consequences or ultimate purpose of an act rather than the character of the actor or actor’s motivation.

Question 26

What are the characteristics of utilitarianism?

Answer 26

1. universality - applies to all acts of human behavior
2. objectivity - operates beyond individual thought, desire and perspective
3. rationality - not based in metaphysics or theology
4. quantifiability - reliance on utility

Question 27

What is utility function?

Answer 27

It measures in “utils” the value of good, service or proposed action relative to the utilitarian principle of the greater good, that is increasing happiness or decreasing pain.

Question 28

Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory. What is consequentialism?

Answer 28

It refers to actions that are judged solely by their consequences, w/o regard to character, motivation or any understanding of good & evil and separate from their capacity to create happiness and pleasure.

Question 29

What is “harm principle” introduced by Mill?

Answer 29

It states that the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.

Question 30

What is the role of utilitarianism in contemporary business?

Answer 30

It is used frequently when business leaders make critical decisions about things like expansion, store closings, hiring and layoffs.
It can also motivate individuals within the org. to take initiative, become more responsible and act in ways that enhance the org.’s reputation rather than tarnish it.

Question 31

Kant’s concept of categorical imperative

Answer 31

Act according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.

1. we must act on the basis of goodwill.
2. never treat others as means toward ends benefitting ourselves w/o consideration of them.

Question 32

What does Kant meant by “to be moral?”

Answer 32

It is to renounce uninformed dogmatism (assertiveness) and rationalism, abide by the categorical imperative, and embrace freedom, moral sense and even divinity (godliness).

Question 33

Why is Kantian ethics said to be not easily applied?

Answer 33

It offers a unique opportunity for the development of individual morality through the categorical imperative to act ethically, which emphasizes humanity and autonomy.

Question 34

What is justice theory?

Answer 34

It is the idea of fairness applied beyond the individual to include the community as well as analysis of social injustice w/ remedies to correct it.

Question 35

What is social contract theory?

Answer 35

The natural state of human beings was freedom, but that human beings will rationally submit to some restrictions on their freedom to secure their mutual safety and benefits.

Question 36

3 principles according to justice theory.

Answer 36

1. Original position: understand the state of nature, a hypothetical situation which rational people can arrive at a contractual agreement about how resources are to be distributed in accordance w/ the principles of justice as fairness. Reflects the desired state of affairs among people in the community.
2. veil of ignorance: reduce bias and self-interest. People arrive at ori position imagining they have no identity regarding anything.
3. unanimity of acceptance: requirement that all agree to the contract before it goes into effect. Provide a min. guarantee of rights & liberties for everyone.