Lecture 2: Emotions

Question 1

3 arbitraire definities van emoties

Answer 1

• “Emotions are transient states that correspond to physiological and cognitive processes associated with distinct internal sensations, or feelings”
• “An intense mental state, positive or negative, internally or externally induced, expressed in physiological responses, behavior, and/or conscious experience”
• “Psychological state characterized by physiological responses, subjective feelings, cognitions related to these feelings”

-> what are the factors at play? Cognitions? Motivation? Physiology? Behavior? Causation?

Question 2

what do expert agree and disagree on regarding the structure of emotions:

Answer 2

• neural systems dedicated at least in part to emotional processes
• response systems
• feelings
• expressive behaviour
• recruits response systems
• motivates cognition and action

but not so much agreement on:
- cognitive interpretation of a feeling state
- motivates behaviour characterized primarily as approach or withdrawal

Question 3

James Lange Theory

Answer 3

stimulus -> bodily responses (somatic/motor) -> experience of bodily responses = emotional experience = emotion (feeling)

dus eerst somatisch/motorisch bodily response, dan pas feeling

Question 4

kritiek james-lange

Answer 4

• Without physiological responses, still emotions
• Physiological responses overlap between emotions (e.g. increased heart rate with both anger and fear)
• Physiological reactions do not always lead to emotions (e.g. injection of adrenaline does not lead to emotion)
• Does not consider object of emotion

-> you need cognitive interpretations!

Question 5

“does not consider object of emotion” uitleg

Answer 5

The James-Lange Theory focuses on body changes leading to emotions, but it doesn’t explain why we feel a certain way about a specific event.

Example: Seeing a friend waving at you doesn’t just cause physiological changes; you also interpret it as a positive event, leading to happiness.

Question 6

Schachter-Singer theory

Answer 6

stimulus - physiological arousal - attribution of arousal - emotional experience (=emotion)

zie schrift

Question 7

kritiek schachter singer theory

Answer 7

• subliminal offering of stimuli makes those stimuli positive
• so we dont need cognition or attribution at all to experience an emotion

Question 8

appraisal theories

Answer 8

• cognition is not necessarily conscious
• emotions are determined by how we interpret or appraise a situation, rather than just by physiological reactions.
• emotions depend on our evaluation (appraisal) of a situation, not just on the event itself.
• the same event can cause different emotions based on how it’s interpreted.

zie schrift

Question 9

Lazarus appraisal theory

Answer 9

Richard Lazarus proposed that appraisal happens before the physiological and emotional response.

Steps:
Primary Appraisal: Is this event good, bad, or neutral?
Secondary Appraisal: Do I have the resources to handle it?
Emotion Results from This Evaluation

Example: You get a tough exam question:
If you think “I studied well” → you feel confident.
If you think “I’m not prepared” → you feel anxious.

Question 10

Scherers appraisal theory

Answer 10

Emotions are based on multiple appraisals (e.g., how relevant the event is, whether it is controllable, etc.).

More detailed and flexible model of emotional experience.

Question 11

theory of constructed emotion (Barett)

Answer 11

• Multi-level, constructionist view
• The brain uses past experience to construct conceptualization: the brain predicts emotions based on sensory input, experiences, context
• Prediction errors
• Culture shape emotions: 1) dynamically constructed, 2) the way we label and understand emotions is influenced by language, culture, and social learning

Question 12

measuring emotions

Answer 12

• Physiology: Heart rate, skin conductance,…
• Behavior: Running away, laughing, crying,…
• Subjective experience: Self-report

relatief veel overlap tussen experience en behavior, niet zo veel met physiology

Question 13

6 universal emotions volgens Paul Ekman

Answer 13

• joy
• disgust
• surprise
• sadness
• anger
• fear

Question 14

Barett over universele emotions

Answer 14

niet waar, emoties zijn sociale constructies, only arousal is universal

Question 15

primary emotions

Answer 15

contentment -> joy
interest -> surprise
distress -> sadness -> anger
distress -> disgust -> fear

Question 16

samenvatting emoties

Answer 16

• Newborns initially experience positive and negative states that gradually differentiate into joy, surprise, and distress at 3 months, as well as anger at 4 months, and then fear at around 6 months.
• Infants do not show the full range of emotions that older children and adults do. One way of explaining this developmental change is to consider how cognitive interpretations of goals, situations, and their resolutions combine with basic emotions to create more sophisticated emotions.
• Complex emotions include shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride, jealousy, envy, and empathy, many of which are selfconscious emotions that require some degree of self-awareness. Social and cultural contexts play a role in differentiating and shaping emotions, including the moral emotions

Question 17

first complex emotions

Answer 17

• simple embarrassment
• envy
• empathy

influenced by incorporation of rules and norms

Question 18

second complex emotions

Answer 18

• complex embarrassment
• pride
• shame
• guilt

influenced by incorporation of rules and norms and self-conscious thought

Question 19

joy development

Answer 19

• First weeks: satisfaction/reflex/random smile
• 3-4 months: social smile
• 6-7 months: goal-oriented/intentional smile

Question 20

development of anxiety

Answer 20

• after 6-7 months
• fear of foreign people is often the first feeling of anxiety
• separation anxiety

Question 21

reduce fear of foreign people

Answer 21

• Proximity to parents
• Relationship between parent and stranger
• Environment
• Appearance + behavior of stranger (non-intrusive, friendly)
• Exposure (regular contact with strangers)

Question 22

separation anxiety wanneer

Answer 22

gaat omhoog tussen 8 en 16 maanden, dan na 16 maanden dalen tot 3-5 jaar

Question 23

complex emotions

Answer 23

• Shyness, shame and guilt, pride
• Later in development (~2+ years)
• “Social emotions/emotion socialization“, role of others, rules, norms
• Focus on negative => much shame, little pride
• Focus on positive => much pride, little shame
• Excessive positive evaluation/expectations: narcissism, anxiety in children with low self-esteem

Question 24

cultural rules of expression (conventions)

Answer 24

• Expression of feelings in a social context depends in part on rules that are culturally determined
• Regulating emotional intensity
• Intensifying certain emotions over others
• Expectations depending on the specific situation
• Categorizing emotions

Question 25

cultural rules of expression examples

Answer 25

* Japan: emphasis on harmony; overt expression of negative emotions (e.g., crying, screaming) is discouraged * Ilongot (Philippine tribe): anger and passion are seen as a virtue and therefore encouraged * Expression of feeling moved (face vs. words) * Tongue sticking out, what emotions? * greeting vs. disrespect (Tibetan culture, Western culture)

Question 26

family climate can also influence emotional expression

Answer 26

- high emotional intensity: heated, confrontational climate -> more externalising behaviour - low emotional intensity: parental depression -> more internalizing depression

Question 27

emotional socialization: family factors

Answer 27

* Role of emotional dialogue - Socially shared emotions - Naming of emotions (´affect labeling´, healing effect) - Promotes self-perception and emotional sensitivity - Helps with emotion regulation * Naming negative emotions and feelings -> being able to put a brake on levels of negativity - Reduces stress response, - Effects on immune response

Question 28

emotion and cognition: attention

Answer 28

- emotionally relevant stimuli attract attention - visual search task: people who are scared of spiders have a harder time finding the flowers (higher reaction times)

Question 29

attentional blink task

Answer 29

Participants see a rapid sequence of letters or images (e.g., 10-20 items per second). They are asked to identify two target stimuli (T1 and T2) among distractors. Example: Finding two numbers (T1 & T2) among a stream of letters. If T2 appears very soon after T1 (within 200-500ms), people often fail to see it—this is called the attentional blink. -> It’s as if attention "blinks" after detecting the first target, temporarily preventing awareness of the second one.

Question 30

emotion and cognition in the attentional blink task

Answer 30

emotionally relevant stimuli reduce the attentional blink: If T2 is emotionally significant (e.g., a threatening or highly arousing word), people are more likely to notice it despite the blink period. Example: If T2 is a threatening word like "danger" or "blood," it breaks through the attentional blink more often than a neutral word like "chair." Emotionally charged words/images (especially negative ones) get prioritized in attention. This suggests that our brain is wired to focus on potential threats even when attention is limited.

Question 31

emotion regulation=

Answer 31

- All the processes people use to influence what emotions they have, when they have those emotions, and how they experience and express those emotions - intrinsic vs. extrinsic (sometimes both) - conscious vs. automatic (dual process)

Question 32

process model of emotion regulation

Answer 32

situation selection situation modification attentional deployment cognitive change response modulation situation attention appraisal response

Question 33

select situation=

Answer 33

* Choices we make in view of our future emotional experiences * Problem: Memory and vision of the future are not perfect - Redelmeier & Kahneman (1996): People primarily remember peak and end of pain, not total duration - Gilbert et al. (1998): People overestimate the intensity of negative emotions in the future * Short versus long term

Question 34

situation modification=

Answer 34

- changing the situation (child cries over wet diaper -> change diaper, boring party -> change music) - only deals with external environment

Question 35

attentional deployment=

Answer 35

- focusing attention on certain aspects of the situation - delayed gratification experiment

Question 36

cognitive change/reappraisal=

Answer 36

- appraisal theories: the meaning/interpretation people give (either consciously or unconsciously) to a stimulus is crucial in the experience of emotion - reappraisal of a stimulus changes the whole emotional response

Question 37

response modulation=

Answer 37

* change experience, behaviour, and/or physiology - self soothing (thumb sucking) - inhibit motor movements related to distress - counting to 10 - deep breath * emotional suppression

Question 38

hoe kan je reappraisal in een experiment doen

Answer 38

* Emotion-induction with movie: disgust, sadness, & anxiety * Instruction: Look versus reappraisal (“watch the movie but remember it's just a movie, with actors and special effects”)

Question 39

family context in the development of emotion

Answer 39

Parent characteristics (e.g., reactivity and regulation, mental health, familial history) Child characteristics (e.g., sadness and anger reactivity, fearfulness, development) Observation (e.g., modeling, social referencing, emotion contagion) Parenting practices (e.g., emotion coaching, reactions to emotions) Emotional climate of the family (e.g., attachment/parenting style, marital relations, expressivity) Emotion regulation (anger, sadness, fear, positive affect) Adjustment (e.g., internalizing, externalizing, social competence) tekenen in schrift!

Question 40

emotion regulation of babies

Answer 40

* Very dependent on parents (extrinsic emotion regulation) * Primitive: turning away head, seeking rapprochement,.. * Social referencing: using other peoples expression to interpret new emotional situations

Question 41

emotion regulation of toddlers

Answer 41

comes with language development

Question 42

emotion regulation of preschoolers

Answer 42

* Social rules: What emotions to show, how intense,...? * Distinguishing between what you feel and what you show * Exaggerating pain/grief * "Faking" emotions * Development of cognitive emotion regulation * Directing attention away * Thinking about something else * Interpretations

Question 43

emotion regulation in further development

Answer 43

* Especially more, better, and more specialized * Others can also regulate emotions * Importance of differentiation between "observers" in adolescence -> e.g. Showing emotions to friends but not to parents * Does not stop at adolescence:

Question 44

Emotion regulation and psychopathology

Answer 44

* As emotion regulation develops, it can also go wrong * "... chronic deficits in emotion regulation contribute to all major forms of psychopathology" (Koole, 2008) * Impact is enormous, even at a young age

Question 45

emotions and schools: Ladd et al

Answer 45

joy, prosocial, positive effect on: moody, angry, aggressive, negative effect on: mutual friendships teacher relationship peer acceptance -> participation -> achievements