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Anatomy & Physiology II > Lecture 2, 3 - ANP1106 > Flashcards

Lecture 2, 3 - ANP1106 Flashcards

1
Q

Anatomical Position

A

Standing erect, legs uncrossed, arms at sides with palms & face forwards

  • Reference point
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2
Q

What are the anatomical directions ?

A
  • Superior (cranial / cephalic) – Towards the head
  • Inferior (caudal) – Towards the feet
  • Anterior (ventral) – Towards the front
  • Posterior (dorsal) – Towards the back
  • Medial – Middle
  • Midline – Towards the middle
  • Lateral – Away from midline, towards the side
  • Intermediate – Between medial & lateral
  • Proximal – Part of a limb close to the trunk / core of the body
  • Distal – Part of a limb far from the trunk / core of the body
  • Superficial – Close to the body surface
  • Deep – Far from the body surface / close to the core
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3
Q

What are the anatomical planes & sections ?

A
  • Sagittal Plane – Cuts the body in left / right halves [ movements forward / backwards ]
  • Frontal ( coronal ) Plane – Cuts the body into front / back halves [ Lateral movements, moving away or towards midline ]
  • Transverse ( horizontal ) Plane – Cuts the body into top / bottom halves [ rotations ]
  • Oblique Plane – Not parallel to any other 3 planes, movements through multiple planes, ODD
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4
Q

What are modifiers ?

A

Used to modify the meaning of planes

  • Mid (mid-sagittal section) – Plane directly at the midline
  • Para (para-sagittal section) – Plane section adjacent to the midline (not equal sides)
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5
Q

What are the 2 anatomical divisions ?

A
  • Axial Division – Includes head, neck & trunk
  • Appendicular Division – Includes the limbs
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6
Q

What are the body cavities ?

A

Dorsal cavity : Includes the cranial (brain) & vertebral cavities (spinal cord, nerves)

Ventral cavity : Includes 2 cavities separated by the diaphragm
- Thoracic cavity – 2 lateral pleural cavities + a medial mediastinum (contains pericardial cavity + other structures)
– _Bony structure_ protects fragile internal organs
- Abdominopelvic cavity – Abdominal part (stomach, intestines, spleen, liver), Pelvic part (bladder, some reproductive organs + rectum)
– _NO bony structure_, organs less sensitive to applied pressure

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7
Q

What are different ways body cavities are divided ?

A

Anatomists divide the abdominopelvic cavity into 9 regions
Cinicians divide it into only 4 quadrants (centered on the navel / belly button) bc non-invasive manipulations of a patient do not offer the same accurate resolution as invasive manipulations

(anatomists cut open the cavity of cadavers to view internal structures whereas clinicians palpate the surface)

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8
Q

The integumentary system is comprised of …

A
  • Skin (cutaneous tissue)
  • Subcutaneous tissue – Blood vessels, fatty tissue
  • *Several accessory structures
    – Sweat & sebaceous glands
    – Hair
    – Nails
    – Somatosensory receptors for touch and pain (found in skin)
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9
Q

What are the functions of the integumentary system ?

A

Protection from toxic substances : Important as the extracellular space of the internal organs is continuous, allowing foreign substances to access anywhere
- Chemical toxins – Acidic skin secretions with anti-bacterial agents that retard bacterial replication, slow them down or kill them
[ e.g. Dermacidin is an anti-microbial peptide secreted by sweat glands, provides innate host defense by the immune system ]
- Sunlight – Melanin produced by melanocyte cells in the basal layer of the epidermis protects against UV-induced damage
[ Light becomes absorbed by the dark melanin, cannot continue passing further into our body / damaging it ]
- Physical – Tight barrier to water, bacterial invasion, trauma (no cracks)
- Biological – Dendritic cells of the epidermis trigger immune system responses when exposed to pathogens so that macrophages of the dermis phagocytise pathogens (eat them up) but they can also trigger immune responses

Maintaining body temperature : Regulation by increasing skin blood flow + sweating to release body heat or by decreasing skin blood flow to retain body heat
Important during exercise, cooler / warmer weather conditions

Providing sensory information (touch & pain) through sensory receptors : Vital for us to interact with / perceive our environment

Providing key metabolic reactions :
- e.g. The conversion of skin cholesterol by UV light into vitamin D3

Serving as a blood reservoir : Skin holds 5% of blood volume, but rarely needs it so it may be released to organs requiring more blood flow as controlled by the NS, which regulates the rerouting of blood flow to essential / active organs

Excretion of metabolic wastes : Urea, uric acid, ammonia in sweat

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10
Q

The skin is NOT impermeable to …

A
  • Gases
  • Fat-soluble vitamins
  • Steroids
  • Plant oleoresins
  • Organic solvents
  • Salts of heavy metals
  • Penetration enhancers for ointment administration (ointments designed to purposely pass through the skin)
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11
Q

What is the composition of cutaneous tissue ?

A
  • Epidermis layer (thin, external)
  • Dermis layer (THICKER, internal, lies under epidermis)
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12
Q

What is the composition of subcutaneous tissue ?

A

Hypodermis

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13
Q

What occurs with a blister ?

A

Loose separation of epidermis from dermis which accumulates fluid
- Caused by friction, trauma
- Soft part that can be felt is entirely the epidermis

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14
Q

What are the cells of the epidermis ?

A
  • Keratinocytes
  • Melanocytes
  • Dendritic (Langerhans) cells
  • Tactile (Merkel) cells
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15
Q

What are the keratinocytes ?

A
  • All over, live 25 - 45 days, produce keratin
  • Stimulated by the hormone epidermal growth factor to begin mitotic division in the deepest layers of the epidermis (site of hormone production is obscure)
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16
Q

What are melanocytes ?

A
  • In deepest layers
  • Release melanosomes (pigmented organelles containing melanin), which are picked up by keratinocytes
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17
Q

What are Dendritic (Langerhans) cells ?

A

Macrophages that are derived from the bone marrow, will migrate + attack pathogens

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18
Q

What are Tactile (Merkel) cells ?

A

Disc-like structure, contain sensory nerve endings

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19
Q

What determines the colour of skin ?

A

Partly due to melanin + carotene from ingested plant which is inserted in keratinocytes to give an orange hue + capillary hemoglobin gives a pinkish color when oxygenated (blue when deoxygenated)

20
Q

What are the layers of the epidermis ?

A
  1. Stratum corneum – Most superficial, 20-30 cells thick
    - Each are flat + anucleated (no nuclei)
  2. Stratum lucidum (only in thick skin of palms of hands and soles of feet) – Formed of 2-3 rows of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes
  3. Stratum granulosum – Several cells thick, where cells accumulate keratin protein
  4. Stratum spinosum – Several cell layers thick
  5. Stratum basale – Deepest layer adjacent to the dermis formed of a single row of stem cells that will be continually regenerating keratinocytes for the overlying epidermis
    - Continuously makes proteins for keratinocytes
21
Q

T/F : Does the dermis contain additional types of cells in a matrix

A

TRUE
These additional cells form layers

22
Q

What are flexure lines in the dermis ?

A

Places (eg. fingers, toes) where the dermis has folds to accommodate joint movement

23
Q

What are the cells of the dermis ?

A
  • Fibroblasts
  • Macrophages
  • Mast cells
  • White blood cells
24
Q

What are fibroblasts ?

A

Secrete collagen proteins that are used to maintain a structural framework of dermis

25
Q

What are macrophages ?

A

Specialized cells involved in the detection, phagocytosis and destruction of bacteria and other harmful organisms

26
Q

What are mast cells ?

A

Respond to infections by releasing histamine which causes vasodilatation (increased blood flow to this area) to allow entry of immune cells from the blood

27
Q

What are white blood cells ?

A

Trigger immune response

28
Q

What is the matrix of the dermis ?

A
  • Comprises whatever is outside the cell
  • Composed of collagen (strong), elastin (elastic) & reticular fibers (delicate and branched)
29
Q

What are stria ?

A
  • Tearing of the dermis occurs when its CT is stretched beyond the limits of its elasticity, leaving stretch marks
  • Appear most often on the abdomen during pregnancy
30
Q

What are the layers of the dermis ?

A
  1. Papillary layer – Superficial & thin, contains areolar CT which forms indentations in the epidermis called dermal papillae containing blood vessels + sensory nerves
    - Dermal papillae in palms & soles form an epidermal ridge which forms friction ridges known as the finger and toe prints
  2. Reticular layer – Deepest, thick, contains dense irregular CT which runs in every direction but mostly along cleavage (tension) lines → Incisions along these lines yield less scarring
31
Q

What is subcutaneous tissue ?

A

AKA Hypodermis / Superficial fascia

  • Located below dermis
  • Usu overlyies muscles
  • Contains blood vessels, adipose tissue & areolar CT which is anchored to underlying structures
  • Fat will be stored & broken down + released to be used as a source of energy when needed
32
Q

What are the accessory structures of the integumentary system ?

A
  • Nails
  • Hair, arrector pilli muscle
  • Several types of glands
33
Q

What are structural characteristics of the nail ?

A

The nail includes the free edge, body (nail plate) & root

  • Lateral edges are under the lateral nail folds
  • Proximal edge is under the proximal nail fold & the cuticle

Nail Bed – The nail lies here, nail derives from the nail matrix part of the nail bed
Lunula – White crescent-shape appearance, due to the thicker nail bed which blocks the pink color from the capillaries
Hyponychium – Skin past the nail bed under the free edge of the nail near your fingertip
- Serves as a barrier from germs & debris

34
Q

What are the clinical manifestations of nail disease ?

A
  • Yellowish nail – Fungal infection, serious respiratory disease OR thyroid gland disorder [ confirmed by growth of a sample in a lab ]
  • Thickened yellowish nail – Suggests a fungal infection
  • Spoon shaped nail – Iron deficiency
  • Beau’s lines (horizontal lines due to uneven growth) – Suggest malnutrition
35
Q

What are the 2 types of hair ?

A
  • Fine vellus body hair – Covers most of the body
  • Terminal hair – Thick, long, pigmented hair found on the scalp, face, armpits & pubic area
36
Q

What are the 3 layers of hair ?

A
  • Centrally located medulla containing large keratinocytes separated by air spaces giving it a “loose” appearance [ Medulla does not exist in fine or vellus hair (only in long terminal hair) ]
  • Cortex surrounding the medulla containing several layers of flattened & pigmented keratinocytes
  • Cuticle covering the cortex formed by a single layer of overlapping keratinocytes
    [ Prevents the inner layers from unraveling into split ends ]
37
Q

What are the 3 components of hair ?

A

Shaft : Projects from the skin
- Circular shaft = Straight hair
- Oval shaft = Wavy / curly hair

Root : Surrounded by the hair follicle

Bulb : Source of hair growth
- Wider than follicle because a papilla surrounded by hair matrix cells & melanocyctes is inserted into the hair center

38
Q

What are the layers of the hair follicle which cover the cuticle?

A
  • Internal & external epithelial root sheath
  • Glassy membrane
  • Peripheral CT root sheath
39
Q

The _________ cells in hair follicles gradually ____ with advancing age, new hair growth turns grey or white

A

pigment, die

40
Q

Hair has an ____________ growth cycle & an ___________ growth cycle

A

active & regressive

41
Q

What occurs during the active hair growth cycle ?

A
  • Longer duration for longer hair
  • Hair wll grow for 2 - 2.5 mm / week
  • Can last years for hair on head, whereas weeks (shorter duration) for hair on eyebrows
42
Q

What occurs during the regressive hair growth cycle ?

A
  • Follows active growth cycle
  • Hair falls out
43
Q

Alopecia

A

A follicle has a limited number of growth cycles before baldness (alopecia) appears

  • Male pattern baldness is partly due to androgens shortening the hair growth cycles
44
Q

What is hirsutism ?

A

Male pattern growth on face, chest & back in women

45
Q

What structures does the hair follicle include ?

A

Arrector pili muscle – Raise hair causes skin dimpling (contracts when cold, straighten out the hair)
- More useful function in fur of animals to improve insulation between cold air / skin

Sebaceous gland (holocrine gland) – Secretes sebum into the hair follicle which is bactericidal, waterproof and acts as a lubricant

Sweat glands (sudoriferous apocrine glands) – Pore in the hair follicle (only in axilla and anogenital areas possibly for sexual bait)
- Sweat includes fat + proteins which only gives rise to odor when converted by bacteria
- Otherwise sweat glands are everywhere on the skin, except nipples and external genitalia

Eccrine glands – Pore on the surface of skin (most common on forehead, palms and soles) to release sweat composed of 99% water + salt, vitamin C, antibodies, dermcidin (antibacterial agent) & traces of the metabolic wastes urea, uric acid and ammonia

46
Q

What are modified sweat glands ?

A

Some cells from the same lineage as those forming sweat glands are modified to form :

  • Ceruminous glands – Secrete cerumen (wax) in the external ear canal which acts as a repellent for insects, & mammary glands in women for milk production
47
Q

How are burns quantifed ?

A

By the degree or depth of damage

1st degree : Damages the epidermis
2nd degree : Damages the epidermis & superficial dermis
3rd degree : Damages the epidermis & dermis

Rule of nines (multiple of 9 such as 2x9=18, 1x9=9 and 0.5x9=4.5) is used to quickly estimate the burn surface area

For the front surface, the trunk is 18%, each lower limb is 9% and the head and each upper limb are 4.5%. This sums to 49.5% for the front and also the back side for a total of 99%. The remaining 1% is the perineum.

Anatomy & Physiology II (4 decks)

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