Lecture 2

Question 1

Who were the Apostolic Fathers, and when did they live?

Answer 1

(Late 1st and 2nd Century)—Church Fathers (and authors of documents) from the 2nd Century, who had purportedly known the apostles; they give us a glimpse into the life of the young church

Question 2

Who was the first Apostolic Father after Peter?

Answer 2

Clement of Rome (late 1st Century). a. Tertullian claims that he was the “immediate” successor to Peter. According to Irenaeus, Clement was the third successor of Peter. c. His position is difficult to determine because of the plurality of presbyter-bishops at this time in the church at Rome.

Question 3

What major works did Clement of Rome write? Who did he write to, and why?

Answer 3

The First Epistle to the Corinthians (or First Clement) (96 AD). A practical letter dealing with divisions in Corinth (the same issues which prompted Paul to write them).

Question 4

What are some of the notable features of Clement of Rome’s letter?

Answer 4

Notable features:
o Affirmation of God using Stoic imagery
o Refers to God as a “demiurge” (a Platonic term)
o Affirmation of Paul’s justification of faith, and importance of love (1 Cor.)
o One of the first descriptions of the organization of the church with bishops and deacons as being instituted by the apostles
o The first use of a clergy-laity distinction
o Appeal to the myth of the Phoenix bird in support of the resurrection
o Implication that both Peter and Paul had died under Nero, after Paul had preached in the “limits of the west” (maybe Spain)

Question 5

Who was “the god-bearer”, and why is he important in our study of history?

Answer 5

(35-107) Ignatius of Antioch, third bishop of Antioch after Peter and Evodius.

d. He is one of the first Church Fathers to suggest a form of Church hierarchy: the bishop
• Installing local bishops would be the focus of unity
• The sacraments could only be administered by the bishop
• The bishop would be “God’s representative on earth”

Question 6

What famous work did the “god-bearer” write, and why is it important?

Answer 6

On his trip to Rome to face trial, he wrote his famous 7 Letters, the result of visits by other accused Christians.

The most significant letter in helping us understand the nature of persecution and martyrdom in the second century is the letter that Ignatius wrote from Smyrna to the Church in Rome.

f. In the letter, he urged the Church in Rome not to attempt to free him, because he wanted to die for the cause of Christ
g. He wanted to imitate the passion of Christ—discipleship begins with ultimate sacrifice
h. In facing death, he will become a witness
i. Ignatius probably died shortly after arriving in Rome. A letter to Bishop Polycarp of Smyrna from Rome (which may have indicated what happened) has been lost.

Question 7

Who was Polycarp of Smyrna?

Answer 7

(69-155) Was martyred under Trajan in 155 CE (a half century after Ignatius)–an example of the Pliny-Trajan Correspondence
2. The Martyrdom of Polycarp began in Smyrna:
a. A group of Christians were brought before the authorities and they refused to worship the gods. They remained firm under the cruelest of tortures.
b. Germanicus, an elderly Christian, was brought to trial and was offered the chance to recant because of his age. He refused, and even called on the beasts to come and get him.
• This aroused the anger of the mob, and they called for the death of “atheists” and called for the death of Polycarp
• At first, at the urging of his Church, Polycarp hid, but after having to move several times, he decided it was the will of God, and waited to be found.
c. He refused to recant at his trial. The crowd shouted “Out with Atheists,” and he pointed at the crowd and said, “Yes, out with Atheists!”

Question 8

Who wrote the Martyrdom of Polycarp, and why is it important?

Answer 8

5. The Martyrdom of Polycarp was written by the church in Smyrna to the church in Philomelium detailing the events of the Polycarp’s ordeal
   b. One of the first letters that alludes to the ancient custom of preserving relics of martyrs

Question 9

Who was Papias of Hieropolis?

Answer 9

1. Was a disciple of the John of Revelation (according to Irenaeus)
2. He wrote the Exposition of the Sayings of the Lord:
   a. An attempt to collect every saying or teaching about Jesus
   b. Only a few fragments have survived
3. His writings mention the two Johns (the disciple, and author of Revelation)
4. Held a “chiliastic” view of the end times: that Christ will rule for a literal thousand years on earth after his return—The first non-canonical writer to give a specifically millennial interpretation to the Christian eschatological hope

Question 10

Who are the four Apostolic Fathers mentioned in the notes?

Answer 10

Clement of Rome
Ignatius of Antioch
Polycarp of Smyrna
Papias of Hieropolis

Question 11

Name the three Apostolic Works in the notes.

Answer 11

Shepherd of Hermas
The Didache
The Epistle of Barnabas

Question 12

What is the Shepherd of Hermas, and what does it deal with?

Answer 12

Reflects the continuing problem of Christians living in the world while not “being of the world” and how to encourage a faithful life among those whose first love as cooled.

The work reflects the different stages of the author’s career as a prophet in the church in Rome.

d. Content: Is a collection of five visions, twelve mandates, and ten parables, which deal with:
• The five visions cover penance and steadfastness in the face of persecution
• The twelve mandates are a summary of the duties of a Christian
• The ten parables deal with moral and practical matters in the church

Value of the document:
• Valuable for the picture it gives of a Christian community in the 3rd generation
• Glimpse into the view of sins after baptism:
o Baptismal grace is permanent and but there is a one “repentance” after conversion for those who fall away
o Warning against presumption that this is always available, because the end is coming soon

Question 13

What is the Didache, and what does it deal with?

Answer 13

Means the “doctrine” of the 12 Apostles. The Didache reflects the growing concerns in Christian History with how properly to conduct Church affairs—how to regulate moral life, worship, and polity.

Author: unknown
Date: Scholarly debate–some say before the destruction of the Temple in 70; others say much later (late 1st/early 2nd); probably in Palestine or Syria

Question 14

What are the three sections of the Didache?

Answer 14

g. Section 1: “The Two Ways” the way of life or the way of death
h. Section 2: A series of liturgical instructions: For examp
• How to Baptize: must be by immersion, unless there is a scarcity of water, then it must pour on the head 3x times
• The earliest text where Baptism other than immersion is discussed
i. Section 3: A Manual of Church Discipline
• Focuses esp. on how to identify false prophets
• Discusses the Eucharist

Question 15

What is the main concern in the Epistle of Barnabas?

Answer 15

• The principle concern of the document: was the debate with the Jews over the Old Testament: Whose is the covenant?

e. The author answers that it belongs to the Christians and no longer to the Jews
f. When the Jews rebelled in Exodus 32 (the golden calf) they broke the covenant, and it is now given to the people of Jesus Christ

Question 16

True or False. The Epistle of Barnabas was written by Paul’s companion in Acts.

Answer 16

False.

Question 17

What is the content of the Epistle of Barnabas?

Answer 17

b. Content: An ancient document; was sometimes included in early Canons of the NT; composed of two parts: doctrinal and practical
h. Doctrinal: chap. 1-17—allegorical interpretations of OT passages
i. Practical: chap. 18-21—repeats the “Two Ways” of the Didache

Question 18

The Document of the Two Ways

Answer 18

Both the Didache and the Epistle of Barnabas use a source called The Document of the Two Ways (not much is known about this source).

Question 19

What two types of arguments were given against Christians? Name a few examples of each.

Answer 19

Baseless rumors and criticism: cannibalism, incest, atheists

Arguments of intellectual, logical, and philosophical, in nature, and were more difficult for average Christians to defend: arguments against Jesus and the resurrection.

Question 20

How did the Apologists respond to the critiques against Christianity?

Answer 20

a. When accused of being Atheists because they had no visible gods, Christians responded that many of the Greek philosophers and poets were also atheists
b. Greek and Roman idols were often protected from theft—the Christians asked: if the idols were all-powerful gods, why did they need to be protected from theft?
c. In opposition to the Pagan arguments against a bodily resurrection, the Christians replied: God is omnipotent, who made all bodies out of nothing, it is not impossible for him to create them anew for the final resurrection.
d. To the Pagan accusation that Christians are immoral (based on the misunderstanding of Christian worship practices), Justin provided an accurate account of worship practices, thus disproving the Pagan claim.
e. In response to the Pagan claim that Christians were subversive in Roman culture, because they refused to participate in Roman civic activities and refused to worship the emperor: the Christians admitted that they indeed did not worship the emperor. They stated that the emperor should not be worshiped, but should instead be served. Christians should serve the emperor by praying to God for him.

Question 21

Who were the Greek Apologists?

Answer 21

1. Aristedes
2. Justin Martyr
3. Tatian
4. Athenagoras
5. Theophilus of Antioch
6. Hermias
7. Melito of Sardis
8. Origen

Question 22

Who were the Latin Apologists?

Answer 22

1. Minucius Felix

2. Tertullian

Question 23

What is The Epistle to Diognetus? What three questions does it seek to answer?

Answer 23

One of the earliest surviving apologies. Greek.

Content: the letter seeks to answer 3 basic questions (ch.1):

• Why paganism and Judaism cannot be tolerated (ch. 2-4)
• Describes why Christians are the soul of the world (ch. 5-6)
• Describes why Christianity is the unique revelation of God, whose love works towards humanity’s salvation (7-10)

Question 24

What is the oldest apology and who wrote it?

Answer 24

Apology, by Aristides. He addressed it to Hadrian.

Content of the work:
• Sought to defend the existence and eternity of God
• Sought to show the Christians had a fuller understanding of God’s nature then either the barbarians (northern Europeans), Greeks, or the Jews

Question 25

Who was Justin Martyr?

Answer 25

One of the greatest of the apologists, because he continuously wrote defenses of the faith in the midst of sever persecution. Was converted to Christianity c. 130, after hearing about the Old Testament prophets, but still held to some philosophical notions. He went through many stages of wandering: Stoicism, Aristotelianism, Pythagoreanism, Platonism. He was accused of being a Christian in 165 and beheaded.

Question 26

Name three of Justin Martyrs works, and their content.

Answer 26

First Apology: What the name “Christian” really means, and relationship of Christianity with Empire and society.

Second Apology: Identifies pagan gods with demons. Against the state.

The Dialogue with Trypho: Centers on the correct interpretation of the OT against a the Jewish philosopher Trypho.

Question 27

What is Justin’s key contribution to Christian apology?

Answer 27

The Logos Doctrine

Question 28

What is the Logos Doctrine?

Answer 28

Background of “Logos” (“word”)
1. Possible OT background in “the word of the Lord”

2. Possible Greek background—multiple meanings:
   • Logos as the reason in the mind; the rational word (a Stoic idea)
   • Logos as the word on the tongue; the spoken word (speech is a rational activity)
3. The Jewish philosopher Philo attempted to fuse the Greek idea with the Jewish idea of a personal God by speaking of the Logos as the thoughts in the mind of God.

Justin’s use of the term has a possible background in the Gospel of John (ch.1)—however, John’s idea is neither Greek nor Jewish but distinctly Christian, in that the Logos became incarnate as an historical person. In Justin, then, we have a combination of all three ideas.

Question 29

How did Justin explain the Logos?

Answer 29

Justin’s explanation of the Logos: it is the partial agreement between the ancient philosophers and Christianity (i.e. Plato’s demiurge).

o The Greek work “logos” means both “word” and “reason”
o The human mind can understand the reality around it, because it shares in the Logos (universal reason) that undergirds all reality
o The Gospel of John affirms that Jesus is the Logos
o Other philosophers had understood reason (only partly) because they did not fully comprehend that Jesus is the Logos.

Question 30

How do we summarize the concept of Logos for Justin and the Apologists in 5 stages?

Answer 30

1. The Logos as the reason or wisdom resident in the mind of God—God always has his reason immanent in himself
2. The Logos as the spoken articulated word of God—God spoke forth his word creating the world, giving a separate existence to his word, but not emptying himself of reason
3. The Logos as immanent in the world—God planted his reason in the universe, giving rational order to creation, and in the minds of human beings, thereby inspiring philosophy, art, literature, etc.
4. The Logos as the revealed word of God in the prophets
5. The Logos as incarnate in Jesus—the divine word became flesh as a personal human being.

Question 31

Who founded the Encratites?

Answer 31

Tatian, a disciple of Justin. He was ascetic, and eventually his sect became heretical.

Question 32

Who wrote “A Plea For Christians”?

Answer 32

Plea for the Christians (c.177), written by Athenagoras (known as “the philosopher of Athens”).
o Dedicated to Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus
o Refutes 3 charges against Christians: Atheism; Incest; and Thyestean Banquets (Greek mythology; cannibalism of one’s own children)

Question 33

Who is the first Christian theologian to describe God in terms of a “trinity”? In what work does this happen?

Answer 33

Theophilus of Antioch (late 2nd century). Three Books to Autolycus (c. 180). First Book: in an answer to Autolycus’ questions about God, describes God in terms of the trinity—the first Christian theologian to use the word “trinity”.

Question 34

quartodecimanism

Answer 34

The practice of observing Easter during Jewish Passover, always on the 14th day of the month, regardless of the day (i.e. not always the following Sunday, etc.)

Question 35

Why was Christian heresy so common in the early centuries of the church?

Answer 35

The diversity of ethnicities and backgrounds of Christianity led to a wide variety of interpretations of the biblical message.

Question 36

What were the two major components of heresies in the church?

Answer 36

a. Some groups interpreted biblical passages in a manner that denied the central message of the gospels (ie. denied the resurrection.)
b. Some groups added elements of Greek philosophy to their doctrines.

Question 37

How did the church respond to Christian heresies?

Answer 37

Orthodox Christians were forced to develop creeds, the canon of scripture, and apostolic succession in order to affirm its belief in (among other basic ideas):
• The doctrine of creation
• The positive value of the created world
• The rule of God over history
• The dual nature of Jesus
• The resurrection of the body
• The coming final reign of God

Question 38

Gnosticism

Answer 38

A vast and amorphous (not well-defined) movement that existed inside and outside the church. It also affected the Jewish religion.

1. Definition of Gnosticism:
   a. Derived from the Greek “gnosis” (knowledge)
   b. There were many, many different sects of Gnosticism
   c. Many claimed to have a “special knowledge” which transcended the simple faith of Christians
   d. The “knowledge” was based upon grandiose claims about the creation of the world (apart from the content of Genesis)

Specifically the origins of evil, and how one went about gaining deliverance from evil (salvation)

Question 39

Heresiologists

Answer 39

theologians and apologists who wrote against the Gnostics (ie. Ireaneus). For many centuries their works were the only information available about Gnosticism

Question 40

The Nag Hammadi documents:

Answer 40

In 1945, a large collection of Gnostic documents were discovered in Nag Hammadi Egypt

Works found:
• Gospel of Thomas
• Gospel of Truth, by Valentius of Rome, one of the more famous Gnostic philosophers :
o Used Paul’s phrase “spirit, soul, and body” in 1 Thess 5:23, to determine three groups of Gnostics: Spirit (Gnostic initiates), Psyche (ordinary church members with faith, but no “knowledge”), and Body (heathan, ignorant people without any hope of the spark)
• Gospel of Judas (made available in 2006)

Question 41

Elements of Gnostic Thought

Answer 41

a. God: a duality of Gods
• The “evil” God of the OT
• The “loving” God of the NT, proclaimed by the pure spirit, Jesus

b. Creation: there are endless genealogies of pre-existent spirit beings (this is similar to one doctrine of Mormonism)
• In the beginning all reality was spiritual, and thus, good
• The “Supreme Being” (the good God) had only original wanted to create a spiritual world, not a physical one

c. Eons: A select number of spiritual beings were created (some say 365—from these we get the “endless geneaologies”)
• One eon, “Wisdom” fell into error and wanted to create something on its own—the resulting evil material world (a miserable world):
o The creation of physical bodies was simply nothing more than a “pre-cosmic disaster”
o The world still has “pieces” of the Spirit Beings—thus the “divine sparks”
o The “divine spark” is imprisoned in evil matter and must be released
o Only the elect have a “divine spark” within them that allows them to grasp the “special knowledge” (secrets) of salvation

Question 42

What is the main concern of Gnosticism?

Answer 42

Therefore, the main concern of the Gnostics was salvation from evil (matter). Some beliefs include:

• All matter is evil—the Gnostics’ final goal is to escape the body.
• The world is not our true home, but rather an obstacle for salvation for our spirit
• Thus the need for a “Gnostic Messenger” to help the elect “release” the spark which arouses the soul from its “sleepwalking” in one’s evil body, which is controlled by evil passions
• Spheres: different levels of heaven that one must break through, using secret knowledge (like passwords) to reach spiritual fullness
• Pleroma: when one reaches spiritual “fullness” and ultimate knowledge
• The Heavenly Messenger: has been sent to dispense this knowledge
o Some believe the “Gnostic messenger” is Christ (Christian Gnosticism), others do not (non-Christian Gnosticism)

Question 43

Docetism

Answer 43

Docetism: (the Greek word for “to seem”)
• Some Gnostics believed that Jesus was pure spirit, and could not possible also be fully human—he only seemed to be human, in order for people to embrace him

Question 44

Types (or forms) of Gnosticism

Answer 44

a. Ascetic:
• The majority of the Gnostic sects
• Demanded an ascetic life, prohibition of procreation and marriage
• So that the “divine soul” might be liberated from evil bodies

b. Hedonistic:
• Emphasis on hedonistic immorality
• They perverted the “Agape Love Feast” of early Christianity
• They appealed to Paul’s notion that the Christian was “free from the law” and under grace

Question 45

Principle (Gnostic) Teachers

Answer 45

a. Simon Magus:
b. Cerinthus: reported to have opposed the apostle John in Ephesus
d. Caprocates: a Gnostic teacher who believed that the world was created by angelic beings
e. Basilides: taught an elaborate form of Gnosticsm combining Christian and Jewish elements
f. Valentinus of Rome:

Question 46

Who was the most influential Gnostic teacher?

Answer 46

Valentinus of Rome:
• His thought:
o He believed that salvation came through “gnosis”
o He used agricultural language (“fertility”) to describe his system of aeons and pleroma (see “Elements of a Gnostic System” above)
o Christ was the offspring of an aeon (named Sophia—wisdom) who revolted and engendered him.
o Jesus was an emanation from Christ or from other aeons of the pleroma

Gospel of Truth has been attributed to him.

Question 47

Who wrote the famous work, Antithesis? What was in this work?

Answer 47

Marcion

Work: he wrote a book called Antithesis

a. Listed the contradictions between the OT and NT
b. Attempted to prove that the God of Jews, the creator of the miserable world was quite different than the Father of Jesus
c. Rejected the story of the birth of Christ, claiming that divine redeemer could not be born of an earthly woman

Question 48

Briefly describe Marcion’s thinking.

Answer 48

a. He believed in the unreliability of the O.T.:
• He rejected any type of allegorical interpretation of the OT—which would make much of the OT distressing
• He asserted that 1st cent. Jews had misunderstood and misinterpreted the mind of Jesus
• The God of the OT was (according to Marcion):
o Inconsistent: after forbidding Moses to make any images, He then asked Moses to make an image of a serpent
o Ignorant: God had to ask Adam where he was; and had to descend to Sodom and Gomorrah to see what was going on
o The Creator of evil: since he created Adam, and Adam sinned, then God must have created evil
• God favored the bloodthirsty and licentious King David
• God devised the humiliated method of sexual reproduction
• God devised the discomforts of pregnancy and pain of childbirth

Question 49

What did Marcion think about God?

Answer 49

b. Definition of God: He was convinced that the world was evil, so he concluded that the maker of the world was either ignorant, evil, or both:
• He believed in 2 gods: creator god and redeemer god
o Law and judgment belong to the creator (demiurge)
o Redemption is the work of the Father (the “unknown” or “strange” god)
• The God and Father of Jesus is not the same as Yahweh, the God of the OT. Yahweh made this world out of ignorance or evil intent.
o Yahweh is a particular and vindictive god who arbitrarily chooses a particular people
o Unlike Yahweh, the Father of the Christians loves people and sent his son to save us.
o Jesus was not really born to Mary, but rather appeared as an adult during the reign of Tiberius—his body was not made of flesh. Marcion used Luke 3, with the statement that in the 15th year of Tiberius, Jesus “came down” from heaven “to the Galilean city of Capernaum.”
• There will be no final judgment since the God of the NT loves us and will simply forgive.
• Paul was the only true apostle—the 12 “Judaized,” so Jesus had to call Paul to restore the true gospel.

Question 50

Who was the first person to make a list of canonical books? And, why was the list of canonical books made?

Answer 50

Marcion

Canon: a list of books that make up the holy scriptures
b. Marcion’s first “canon”: Most of the NT had been corrupted by Judaizers in the 1st Century
• Marcion liked Paul, but made changes and cut much of the material from his letters (because of the Judaizers)
• Only the book of Luke was authoritative
• In his critique of the different books, Marcion was the first person to draw up a canonical list of Biblical books

Question 51

Who were the Marcionites?

Answer 51

a. A strictly ascetic community, which rejected marriage
b. The rejection of allegorical interpretation of the OT
• Destroyed any invocation of the argument from the fulfillment of prophecy
• The OT prophets were not inspired by the kindly Father of Jesus
c. Marcion and his followers displayed overtones of anti-Semitism

Question 52

Who founded the Montanists?

Answer 52

1. Founder: Montanus
   a. Born in Phrygia in Asia Minor, Montanus had been a recent convert to Christianity, when he was “seized by the Spirit” and began prophesying

Question 53

Describe the Montanist movement in detail.

Answer 53

2. The Movement:
   a. His two companion prophetesses, Maximilla and Prisca, aided him as he delivered utterances of the Paraclete (Holy Spirit)
   b. Montanus often spoke as the Paraclete himself (in the 1st person)—his mouth as the “instrument” of the Spirit
   c. Montanus and his followers tried to stay within the Church, and reform it, but they soon left to form their own group
3. The Controversy:
   a. The Church objected to the peculiar form of the utterances:
   • The ecstatic nature of the utterances was unlike prophecy from the biblical prophets
   • The biblical prophets brought the message from the Lord in the 3rd person, as messengers
   b. The content of this “New prophecy” or new revelation, brought back fear of Gnosticism, with its claims of new information
   c. The Montanist emphasis on the nearness of the end of the world—due to patriotism in Phrygia, many of Montanus’ followers assumed Christ would return there
   d. The Montanists demanded that their followers acknowledge the genuineness of the prophecies—if the followers denied the authenticity of any of the three prophets, they were guilty of blasphemy

Question 54

Which one of the famous Latin Apologists became a Montanist?

Answer 54

Tertullian

Question 55

What effect did the Montanist have on the church?

Answer 55

• The church attacked the divisiveness of Montanus’ quest for miraculous gifts
• The Church reacted to the message of Montanus by claiming that the age of direct revelation had come to an end with the end of the apostolic age—which actually helped with the formation (and closing) of the NT canon
• The Montanists also challenged the Church’s authority—which also led to the formation of the “Apostolic Succession” portion of the three-pronged defense against heresies. (See Latourette)

Question 56

What specific developments came about in the church because of the Montanist heresy?

Answer 56

• The first recorded synods of bishops were held in Asia Minor, in order to consider the proper course of action in relation to the Montanists.
• These meetings laid the foundation for the Church practice of allowing the Holy Spirit to work through councils
• The source of Authority in Scripture was emphasized—Montanist prophecy was not true prophecy by biblical standards, because it was “ecstatic.”
• The bishops claimed to be the true spiritual leaders of the church, possessing the Holy Spirit by reason of their office.—this centered the former triad of Apostles, Prophets, and Teachers, into the office of Bishop

Question 57

Summarize the effects that heresy had on the church

Answer 57

The Church was subsequently forced to institute a the three-fold defense of Creed, Canon, and Apostolic Authority In order to combat philosophical/theological heresies such as Gnosticism (Creed); heretical persons who tampered with the Scriptures, such Marcion (Canon); and movements that threatened the standing authority of the Church, such as the Montanists (Apostolic Authority)

Question 58

What is the 3-fold defense against heresy?

Answer 58

Creed, Canon, and Apostolic Succession

Question 59

What is Apostolic Succession? And, who came up with this concept?

Answer 59

a. The concept of the office of Bishop was strengthened through argument of Apostolic Succession by Irenaeus (Against Heresies)
• The concept became a powerful weapon against the encroachment of Gnosticism
• It also became a steady argument for the faith that was taught in churches—bishops would certify their teaching on the claim that they had received it from a succession going back to the disciples of the apostles.

Question 60

True or False: If an area bishop could not prove physical succession, they needed to prove spiritual succession by showing that they were of one, orthodox faith

Answer 60

True. But they also had to live a holy life.

Question 61

Apostles Creed

Answer 61

Or, “The Rule of Faith”. is a modern incarnation of one of the earliest and shorter formulas in the early Church—it became the “Symbol of Faith”

Question 62

The Creed was presented during Baptism. Initiates had to answer what series of question?

Answer 62

• Do you believe in God, the Father almighty?
• Do you believe in Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who was born of the Holy Ghost and of Mary the Virgin, who was crucified under Pontius Pilate, and died, and rose again at the third day, living from among the dead and ascended unto heaven and sat at the right of the Father, and will come to judge the quick and the dead?
• Do you believe in the Holy Ghost, the Holy Church, and the resurrection of the flesh?

Question 63

How is the Apostle’s Creed a rejection of Marcionism and Gnosticism?

Answer 63

a. God: The Greek word, pantokrator (almighty) means “all ruling.” God rules all realms. In opposition to the Gnostics, there is no distinction between spirit and bodies as far as God’s rule is concerned.
b. The Son: In opposition to the Marcionite and Gnostic views of Christ, “R” describes Jesus as “the Son of God”. The statement regarding the death of Christ under Pontius Pilate, indicates an historical event that denies Docetism.
c. The Holy Spirit and the Holy Church: In opposition to the many strands of Gnosticism and Marcion’s church, “R” underscores that authority of the church. The “resurrection of the flesh” rejects any notion that the flesh is evil or of no consequence.

Question 64

What did early Christians mean by “scriptures”?

Answer 64

When early Christians spoke of the “Scriptures” they meant the Hebrew Scriptures in the Greek version (Septuagint).

Question 65

How did Marcion’s canon help the church?

Answer 65

Marcion’s heretical list actually helped the Church because it was forced to form an orthodox canon earlier, rather than later.

Question 66

What are the major divisions of the Jewish canon?

Answer 66

By the time of the birth of Christianity the main lines of the Jewish Canon were already drawn (Law, Prophets, Writings)

Question 67

Which books were not in the Jewish canon?

Answer 67

b. Some books not included in the Hebrew Canon were highly regarded by some: Sirach and Wisdom of Solomon and I Enoch—all of which had limited acceptance by some Christians

Question 68

Church Fathers who argued for a narrower canon

Answer 68

• Melito of Sardis (d.190)—was the earliest scholar to list the Christian OT Canon according to the Jewish canon (except for the book of Esther).
• Jerome (5th cent.) argued for the Jewish Canon and the exclusion of the Apocryphal books

Question 69

Church Fathers who argued for a broader canon

Answer 69

• Origen (185-254)—argued for inclusions from the Septuagint not found in the Jewish canon (ie, the book of Daniel)
• Augustine—his arguments for a broader canon established the Catholic tradition that culminated at the Council of Trent

Question 70

Church Fathers who took a moderate stance

Answer 70

• Athanasius (296-373)

Question 71

Criteria of Canonicity

Answer 71

a. Inspiration: assumed as a minimum requirement
b. Apostolicity: did the work come directly from Apostolic circles?
• For example, Luke never saw Jesus, but knew Paul personally
• The Shepherd of Hermas is an orthodox document, but does not fit this criteria
c. Antiquity: similar to above
• For example, John’s works are commended because he was “an eyewitness and hearer. . . of the wonderful things of the Lord.”
d. Applicability to the whole Church (Catholicity): do all of the works apply to the church as a whole?
e. Public Reading in the Assembly: are the chosen books useful for worship?
f. Right Doctrine: Whether a writing agreed with the teaching that had been received was important in the reception of the writing itself
• Christians received certain documents, and then reflected on why these had come down to them.

Question 72

Why a Protestant vs. Catholic Canon today (ie, different bibles)?

Answer 72

a. Catholic: At the Council of Trent, (1545-1563), the Catholic Church decreed that books that had been declared “divinely inspired” in previous councils would be added to the canon. Thus the Apocryphal books were added to the Bible.
b. Protestant: there is no “official” consensus by Protestants, since the term is generally applied to many different groups that broke away from the Catholic Church, and from each other. However, the majority (if not all) of the Bibles that are not Catholic do not contain the Apocrypha because the general consensus in biblical translations was to follow the lead of the first canon (Muratorian Fragment) and to follow the criteria of canonization set forth by the early church leaders (#4 above). This criterion eliminates the Apocryphal books. Martin Luther even tried to eliminate Hebrew, James, Jude, and Revelation, but was not successful, since the “Lutheran Translation” contains those books.

Question 73

Monarchianism

Answer 73

one God with three different persons or personalities—instead of one “substance” and three persons as Tertullian would suggest, see below)

Question 74

Modalism

Answer 74

Modalistic Monarchians (Sabellians): Also called modalism. (Noetus, Praxeas, Sabellius and others). They held that in the Godhead, the only differentiation was a mere succession of modes or operations. They held to the idea of Patripassianism.

Question 75

Patripassianism

Answer 75

(a result of Modalism) the belief that since Jesus and the Father were one person, that God the Father suffered on the cross.

Question 76

Who are the most famous teachers (theologians) we’ve studied in this class?

Answer 76

1. Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 130-c.202)
2. Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c.215)
3. Tertullian of Carthage (c. 160 – c.225)
4. Origen of Alexandria (c. 185 – c.254)
5. Hippolytus and Callistus in Rome

Question 77

Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 130-c.202)

Answer 77

Theologian. A Disciple of Polycarp, whom he often refers to as the “old man”.

Works: only 2 survive
• Demonstration of Apostolic Preaching—an exposition of Christian doctrine
• Against Heresies—a refutation of Gnosticism, esp. Valentius
o The list of scriptures found here, makes Irenaeus the first writer whose list of NT books mentioned virtually corresponds to the canon that became accepted as traditional (although he does not quote from 3John, James, or 2 Peter).

Question 78

Describe Iranaeus’ theology:

Answer 78

Theology:

• Opposed Gnosticism by emphasizing the traditional elements of the church:
o the episcopate
o the centrality of scripture

• He emphasized, the creation and the free-will of humanity

• Humans should be instructed by:
o Angels
o The “Two hands of God”—The Word and the Holy Spirit (Israel was an example of the “Two Hands”)

• God has a purpose in history, despite the existence of sin

• The Adam/Christ Theory (Recapitulation) theory of atonement: The incarnation of Christ was:
o The divine plan for the atonement was a “recapitulation” of the original creation in response to sin
o In Christ, the divine Word a humanity such as Adam possessed before the fall (since he was created in the image/likeness of God)
o The incarnation also then became a remedy for the sin in the world—since by faith in Christ, humanity may recover the lost likeness
o In response the Gnostic negativity toward the fall, Irenaeus suggest that God allowed Adam to fall to quench his pride and to teach him discipline and experience. Thus the history of salvation is a type of positive and progressive education.
o The Gnostics asked, “What went wrong,” but Ireaneus asks, “What can we learn from the Adam and Eve?”
o Jesus is the “second Adam”—the model of how it should have been

• Israel, as an example of the “Two Hands” is a demonstration of the unfolding redemptive purposes of God

• Jesus is the head of the Church
o Those who partake of communion and baptism are also participants in victory

• At the end of the age, redeemed humanity will continue to grow in greater communion with God

Question 79

Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c.215)

Answer 79

Theologian. Bishop of Alexandria.

• Distinct characteristics of the Church:
o It battled a higher rate of Gnosticism than others
o The Church was rather wealthy
o An unusual type of church structure with 12 presbyters (elders), a bishop, and teachers, who were generally more influential than the bishops.

Question 80

b. The Alexandrian “School”

Answer 80

• Known for its collection of thinkers and scholars (such as Origen) who were prominent
• Many of the oldest scripture manuscripts extant came from Alexandria
• Known for its allegorical interpretation of scripture (Origen especially)

Question 81

Describe the theology of Clement of Alexandria

Answer 81

Theology:

• The Apostolic tradition contained the “true knowledge” as opposed to “false knowledge” of the sects. What does this mean?
o The Gnostics simply sought knowledge, and gave no thought to the development of character or virtue.
o For Clement, though, the higher life of the spirit is the moral and spiritual ascent that we achieve through Christ
o Just as the covenant was given to the Jews; philosophy was given to the Greeks, but is inferior because it was not the Logos (since it was given by Angels and not God)—true knowledge comes from God.

• The Central principle in Clement’s thinking is the doctrine of Creation
o This is the ground of redemption (thinking back to Irenaeus)
o Like Justin, Clement believed that the Creator had planted good seeds of truth throughout creation, but they were only revealed through the truth of Christ
o Thus, the pagan philosophers were on to something (knowledge) but fell short, since all truth and goodness comes from the creator (similar to Augustine)

• Clement did not disparage the body and physical things (as the ascetic Gnostics did) but he did write several works urging caution about sexuality, money, and other things

Question 82

True or False: Clement of Alexandria is known for having authored the oldest Christian hymn.

Answer 82

True

Question 83

True or False: Tertullian died as a rigorist Montanist

Answer 83

True

Question 84

True or False: As a Montanist, Tertullian initiated the practice of not allowing forgiveness of post-baptismal sins

Answer 84

True

Question 85

What two famous quotes are attributed to Tertullian?

Answer 85

“What has Athens to do with Jerusalem? What concord is there between the Academy and the church?”

“The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church.”

Question 86

What was Tertullian’s theological masterpiece?

Answer 86

Apology: Tertullian’s masterpiece
o The greatest of the Latin apologetic works before Augustine.
o Contains the arguments of Justin Martyr, but with a legal bent, using the art of rhetoric.

Question 87

What was Tertullian’s greatest work?

Answer 87

• Against Praxeas: the most famous of his works—wherein he coins formulas that would be of great importance of future theologians
o Praxeas advocated the doctrines of patripassianism and modalism
o In response, Tertullian, defined the trinity as: “one substance and three persons”—this became the hallmark of orthodoxy

Question 88

True or False: Origen self castrated himself.

Answer 88

True. Or at least according to Eusubius.

Question 89

What was Origen’s greatest work?

Answer 89

Against Celsus: one of his most famous works against the pagan Celsus
o The longest and greatest of the Greek apologetic works
o Raised Christian Apologetics to a higher level
o Developed the moral argument for the truth of Christianity in order to counter charges that the miracles of Jesus were performed by magic

Question 90

De Principiis

Answer 90

On First Principles, by Origen- probably the first major systematic theology in Church history, wherein he outlines his principles of biblical hermeneutics

Question 91

How did Origen interpret scripture?

Answer 91

Origen used allegory very freely
• According to Origen, Scripture corresponds to the three parts of human nature
o The bodily sense is the literal sense of scripture
o The psychic (soul) sense refers to the moral teachings in scripture
o The Pneumatic (spiritual) sense refers to allegorical interpretation that reveals the mysteries of the faith.

Question 92

How did Origen’s fight against the Gnostics inform his biblical interpretation?

Answer 92

Origen’s fight against the Gnostics informed his methodology of biblical interpretation
o He found “timeless truths” behind every phrase in the bible, including OT laws, figures, and even geography
o He was intent on uniting the OT and the NT
o He believed that very few passages of the Bible spoke any truth in the literal sense—Why? Because he was reacting against some of the ridiculous arguments based on various faulty literal interpretations of scripture (the OT) by skeptics such as Marcion.

Question 93

True or False: According to Origen, Creation was a result of the fall.

Answer 93

True

Question 94

True or False: Origen believed in two creations.

Answer 94

True. • Origen believed in 2 creations—one spiritual (intellect) and the other, physical
o Spiritual: is perfect and without bodies
o Physical: a temporary home for fallen, pre-existing spirits (similar to Mormon theology)

Question 95

What was at the core of the conflict between Hippolytus and Callistus?

Answer 95

The Conflict
• Hippolytus did not accept Callistus’ appointment—some of the conflict arose because Hippolytus was in a higher social class that Callistus.
• However, the bulk of the conflict was theological:
o Christology: Hippolytus represented the Logos Christology; Callistus claimed that that was “ditheism” and attempted to recognize both the unity of God and the suffering savior, which placed him dangerously close to heresy.
o Ecclesiology: Hippolytus took the rigorous position that certain sinners (such as adulterers and murderers) could not be reconciled to the Church; Callistus claimed that all sinners could be forgiven and readmitted to the Church

Question 96

What two insights can we draw from the controversy between Hippolytus and Callistus?

Answer 96

Two Insights from this conflict:
• Schism in the Church became a larger threat, and was a foreshadowing of the theological controversies that would dominate the landscape of the Church
• The conflict highlighted the rise in prominence of the Church in Rome.