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pathophysiology > lecture 2 > Flashcards

lecture 2 Flashcards

1
Q

nucleus

A

genetic info, directs metabolic function of cells, nuclear membrane/ pores allows communication with cytoplasm

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2
Q

cytoplasm

A

surrounds nucleus, structures carry out directions of the nucleus

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3
Q

cells

A

basic structural and functional unit of the body
microscopic building blocks of the body (over 200 kinds and trillions in your body)
basic unit of life

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4
Q

tissues

A

group of similar cells performing the same functions

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5
Q

organs

A

groups of tissues

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6
Q

organ systems

A

groups of organs functioning together

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7
Q

functioning organisms

A

integrated organ systems

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8
Q

cytoplasm

A
  • contains organelles: mitochondria, ER, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, centrioles, cytoskeleton
  • mass of protoplasm, surrounded by a selectively permeable membrane with pores and channels
  • outside of nucleus
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9
Q

nucleus

A
  • 2 types of nucleic acids combined with protein
  • nuclear membrane: double layered, pores, separates nucleus from cytoplasm
  • DNA - in chromosomes of nucleus, genetic info
  • RNA - in nucleoli, component of messenger, transfer, rRNA
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10
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A
  • interconnected network of tubular channels enclosed by membranes
  • communicates with nuclear and cellular membranes

RER - ribosomes, protein synthesis
SER - no ribosomes, lipid synthesis

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11
Q

ER stress/ defects are evident in diseases such as:

A

neurodegeneration, atherosclerosis, metabolic disease (T2D), liver disease, cancer

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12
Q

golgi apparatus

A
  • flattened membrane-like sacs near nucleus
  • synthesis of large carb molecules
  • connected with tubules of RER
  • proteins from ribosomes –> RER tubules –> Golgi apparatus –> combine with carb molecules –> form secretory granules
  • implicated in a number of neuronal diseases
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13
Q

mitochondria

A
  • rod shaped
  • convert food into energy to make ATP to fuel chemical rxns in cell
  • have their own DNA, transform their own genes, mostly for ATP synthesis
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14
Q

lysosomes

A
  • cytoplasmic vacuoles with digestive enzymes
  • digestion happens within phagocytic vacuole to prevent leakage of enzymes
  • lysosome storage diseases, enzyme defects (rare)
  • anything to be recycled
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15
Q

centrioles

A
  • short, cylindrical, adjacent to nucleus
  • move to opposite poles of the cell during cell division to form mitotic spindle
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16
Q

cytoskeleton

A
  • forms cell’s structural framework, shape, and cell movements (eg. phagocytosis)
  • has 3 types of protein tubules
    1. mircotubules (largest): a/b tubulin polymers
    2. intermediate filaments : vimentin/ keratin fibers
    3. microfilaments (smallest) - G actin polymers, can generate force, muscle contraction
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17
Q

cytoskeleton - intermediate filaments

A
  • small, tough protein filaments
  • reinforce cell’s interior, keep shape by holding organelle in proper position
  • identification and characterization of intermediate filaments provide diagnostic and prognostic info
  • cancer diagnosis: helps determine cell of origin
  • associated with lots of diseases: CVD, cirrhosis, alzheimers
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18
Q

quantity/ number of organelles can vary between cell types related to the functions they perform

A

liver: RER
testis: SER
muscle: mitochondria
liver/ muscle: multiple nuclei
neurons/ muscle: cytoskeleton (MT/ Actin)
macrophages: lysosomes
RBC: none

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19
Q

selectively permeable cell membrane

A

only lets certain molecules enter and exit and it controls traffic into or out of cell (ions/ inorganic molecules)

  • lipid bilayer surrounds a cell and separates cytoplasm from surrounding environment. It allows PASSIVE transport of water and small molecules like oxygen/ CO2
  • contains many different proteins, glycoproteins and glycolipids (receptors/ ion channels/ transporters) that provide functions/ communications to cells
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20
Q

cell membrane: CF

A

mutation of CFTR = CF

when there is a mutation in the CFTR protein (which normally controls flow of water and Cl across cell membrane), the CFTR protein receptor doesn’t work which leads to CF (mutation can cause thick mucous buildup in LUNGS, GI, and pancreas)

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21
Q

movement of materials in and out of cell

A

selectively permeable membrane
- oxygen and nutrients (Na+, K+, Ca2+) enter cell
- waste products eliminated

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22
Q

diffusion

A

solutes move from concentrated –> dilute solution

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23
Q

osmosis

A

water molecules move from dilute –> concentrated (solute impermeable to membrane?)

  • high water to low water!!
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24
Q

tonicity

A

isotonic - balance
hypotonic - filled with water
hypertonic - deprived of water

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25
Q

active transport

A

movement from low conc. to high conc.

requires cell to expend energy due to CONCENTRATION GRADIENT

sodium: extracellular electrolyte (in plasma) (goes out)

potassium: intracellular electrocyte (in cells) (comes in)

  • 3Na out, 2K in
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26
Q

phagocytosis

A

Ingestion of particles too large to pass across cell membrane (Large particles)

Membrane/Cytoplasm flows around the particle, and cytoplasmic processes fuse to engulf particle within a vacuole into the cytoplasm

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27
Q

endocytosis

A

internalization of materials by engulfing (small particles)
* receptor mediated

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28
Q

pinocytosis

A

Ingestion of fluid and very small molecules/ions

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29
Q

exocytosis

A

remove wastes/ products (hormones, enzymes) from cells from secretory vesicles from GOLGI apparatus (see image for more details)

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30
Q

tissues (4 types)

A

groups of cells that perform a similar function

  1. epithelium
  2. connective and supporting (father carter eats bone right here and lies)
    - fibrous
    - cartilage
    - elastic
    - bone
    - reticular
    - hematopoeitic
    - adipose
    - lymphatic
  3. muscle
  4. nerve
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31
Q

epithelium

A

covers exterior facing surfaces of body

lines interior/ exterior of body surfaces and performs secretory, protective, transport and regulatory functions: skin, mucous membranes, GI tract etc…

no blood vessels, nourished by diffusion

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32
Q

epithelium - endothelium

A

simple squamous epithelium

lines inside of heart and blood/ lymph vessels

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33
Q

epithelium - mesothelium

A

simple squamous epithelium

lines major body cavities: pleural, pericardial, peritoneal cavities

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34
Q

glandular epithelium

A

forms glands and parenchymal (functional) cells of excretory or secretory organs (livers and kidneys)

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35
Q

epithelium - functions

A

protection (keratinized (skin) epithelium and stratified epithelium)

absorption (columnar intestinal epithelium)

glandular epithelium (secretes mucus, sweat, oil, enzymes, hormones)

36
Q

epithelium - exocrine glands

A

discharge secretions through duct outside the body (ex. tears, sweat, glands, pancreas (endocrine and exocrine)

37
Q

epithelium - endocrine glands

A

discharge secretions directly into bloodstream (far)

ex. thyroid and adrenals

38
Q

epithelium - paracrine glands

A

short distance

cells that need hormone are close by (receptors are close)

hormones may be in bloodstream

39
Q

epithelium - autocrine glands

A

self effect

goes from cell that makes it/ secretes it and right away attaches to cell itself (or one beside it)

may not even go into bloodstream

40
Q

simple vs stratified epithelia function

A

simple - absorption/ excretion (single layered)

stratified - protection

41
Q

simple squamous

A

direct contact with basement membrane (absorption/ filtration) capillary walls, alveoli walls

42
Q

simple cuboidal

A

absorption/ secretion/ excretory functions

kidney, pancreas

43
Q

simple columnar

A

absorption/ secretion/ excretory functions

stomach, colon, rectum

44
Q

pseudo stratified

A

ciliated (mucous secretion/ protection) upper airways/ trachea

45
Q

stratified transitional

A

elastic organs (bladder, urethra)

46
Q

stratified squamous

A

protective (esophagus, mouth, vagina)

47
Q

3 types of connective tissue fibers

A
  • collagen fibers (joints, skin)
  • elastic fibers (blood vessels, lungs, skin)
  • reticular fibers
48
Q

collagen fibers (joints skin)

A

most abundant protein in the body

  • connect and support tissues
  • contain collagen protein; long and flexible, strong but does not stretch
49
Q

elastic fibers (blood vessels, lungs, skin)

A

distensibility of arteries
- contain elastin protein, not as strong but increased elasticity compared to collagen

50
Q

reticular fibers

A

form supporting framework of organs (liver, spleen, lymph nodes)
- similar to collagen but thin and delicate

51
Q

other connective tissues (he lied at campus but shrunk)

A
  • hematopoietic (blood forming)
  • lymphatic (lymphocyte forming)
  • adipose (insulation, energy, padding)
  • cartilage
    (hyaline - bone ends at moveable joints)
    (elastic - very flexible/ ears) (fibrocartilage - dense, weight bearing - vertebral discs, knee joint)
  • bone
  • subcutaneous tissue (support/protection of organs and muscles - deepest skin layer)
52
Q

muscle tissue - muscle filaments contain…

A

muscle cells contain filaments of actin/ myosin which slide inward to contract

53
Q

actin

A

cytoskeleton

54
Q

myosin

A

motor protein, pulls actin filaments together (contraction) - via ATP

55
Q

striated muscle (skeletal)

A

moves skeleton

moves under conscious (SOMATIC) control

56
Q

smooth muscle

A
  • in walls of hollow internal organs (GI, biliary, reproductive tracts, blood vessels)
  • functions automatically (AUTONOMIC) not under conscious control
57
Q

cardiac muscle

A
  • only in heart
    -resembles striated muscle but has features common to both smooth and striated muscles
  • not regenerative, doesn’t repair after damaged
58
Q

nerve tissues - neurons

A

nerve cells, transmit nerve impulses

59
Q

nerve tissue - central body

A

these emerge from central body to transmit impulses:
- dendrites (transmit toward cell body)
- axon (transmit away)

  • arranged in chains, separated by synapse (neurotransmitters)
60
Q

nerve tissue - neuroglia

A

supporting cells more numerous than neurons

61
Q

neuroglia - astrocytes

A
  • long, star-shaped cells, numerous, highly branched process
  • provide structure/ support and nourishment to neurons
62
Q

neuroglia - oligodendrocytes

A

small cells, scanty cytoplasm, surround nerve cells (myelin)

  • schwann (PNS)
  • oligodendrocyes (CNS)
    (both produce myelin sheath but in different places)
63
Q

neuroglia - microglia

A
  • phagocytic cells (immune protection)
  • macrophages of NS

*hard to treat viral infections in the brain because brain is an immune privileged site - less subject to immune responses

64
Q

organs and organ systems

A

groups of different tissues integrated to perform a specific function
- one tissue performs primary function
- other tissues perform supporting functions

65
Q

2 sections of an organ

A

parenchyma - FUNCTIONAL CELLS of an organ
stroma - tissue that forms SUPPORTING FRAMEWORK of an organ

66
Q

germ layers

A
  • all cells derive from a single fertilized ovum
  • ovum multiplies –> differentiates –> organized to form organs and organ systems
67
Q

what does a fertilized ovum differentiate into

A

trophoblast
- PERIPHERAL group of cells, forms placenta and other structures to support and nourish embryo

inner cell mass
- inner group of cells
- give rise to embryo
- 3 distinct germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm)

68
Q

germ layers - ectoderm

A
  • outer layer - interacts with external environment
  • skin
  • hair, nails, sweat glands
  • brain and spinal cord
  • nervous system
  • cranial and spinal nerves
  • retina, lens, and cornea of eye
  • inner ear
  • epithelium of nose, mouth and anus
  • enamel of teeth
  • epidermis
69
Q

germ layers - mesoderm

A
  • middle layer
  • dermis
  • connective tissue
  • muscle
  • bone
  • cartilage
  • heart
  • blood
  • blood vessels
  • reproductive organs
  • kidneys
  • major portions of urogenital system
70
Q

germ layers - endoderm

A
  • inner layer
  • epithelium of pharynx
  • digestive system
  • respiratory tract
  • urethra and urinary bladder
  • gallbladder
  • liver
  • pancreas
  • biliary tract
  • thyroid gland/ parathyroid gland
  • thymus
  • some parts of urogenital tract
71
Q

Atrophy

A

REDUCTION in CELL SIZE in response to
- diminished function
- inadequate hormonal stimulation
-reduced blood supply

  • ex. reduction of skeletal muscle size when extremity is immobilized in a cast
  • ex. shrinkage of muscle, breasts, and genitals following menopause and aging due to diminished sex hormone secretion
72
Q

Hypertrophy

A
  • INCREASE in CELL SIZE without increase in cell number
  • ex. muscles in response to resistance training/ exercise
  • ex. heart of a person with high blood pressure
  • disease process examples
73
Q

Hyperplasia

A
  • INCREASE in CELL SIZE and CELL NUMBER in response to increased demand
  • ex. glandular tissue of breasts during puberty (development) pregnancy (preparation for lactation)
  • ex. enlargement of thyroid gland, increasing output of hormones
  • disease process examples
74
Q

Metaplasia

A
  • change from one type of cell to another (to protect itself)
  • initially protective but leads to dysplasia
  • ex. lining of a chronically inflamed bladder or esophagus due to acid reflux
75
Q

Dysplasia

A

cell development and maturation are disturbed and abnormal
- individual cells vary in size and shape
- ex. chronic inflammation of epithelial cells of uterine cervix in HPV infection may progress to cervical epithelial dysplasi and neoplasia (growth of abnormal cells, irriversible)

76
Q

Increased enzyme synthesis

A

adaptive response of liver: inactivating/ detoxifying drugs or chemicals through SER enzymes (seen in alcoholism/ drug tolerance)

77
Q

changes from cell injury can be reversible in some cases early on in pathogenesis

A

normal function - active transport of K IN and Na OUT (active)
- if cell is injured, sodium IN with H2O which causes cell swelling and rupture

cell necrosis ( impaired blood supply) - irriversible damage cause cell damage and leading to cell death

if enzyme metabolism in hepatocytes is compromised: fatty changes can occur –> accumulate fat droplets in the cytoplasm due to impairment of enzyme systems that metabolize fat

*different tissues have varying susceptibility

78
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed cell death
- all normal cells have a predetermined life span
- number of functional cells determined by the balance between cell growth and cell death
-ex. virus infected cels, embryonic development, regular immune function, regular maintenance/ aging

DEMOLITION

79
Q

necrosis

A

EXPLOSION - unprogrammed, terminal cell death, inflammatory reactions, very damaging to body (irreversible damage, cell death)

80
Q

transient senescene

A

cell stress and damage –>
RESOLUTION AND REJUVENATION
-limits proliferation
- enhances tissue remodelling
- permits efficient immune clearance

  • apoptosis
80
Q

aging and the cell

A
  • genetic and environmental factors
  • normal cells have a fixed number of divisions before they die - Hayflick limit
  • aging may be caused by damage to cellular DNA, RNA, and cytoplasmic organelles
  • some cells are incapable of division, long lived (neurons) and degrade over time
  • some are short lived (RBC, skin) and constantly renewed
  • as cell ages, it’s less able to protect itself from injury or external threats (declining immunity)
  • escape from this process - cancer (cells that don’t die appropriatelty)
81
Q

chronic senescence

A

cell stress and damage –>
FIBROSIS AND DISEASE
- depletes progenitor pool
- exacerbates fibrotic and inflammatory activation
- prohibits clearance, promotes accumulation
–> secondary senescence

82
Q

tissue remodelling - repair

A

in response to stress/ disease
- chronic damage/ inflammation (fibrosis/ scarring, wall thickening, increased mucous production)
- cardiac (hypertrophy, sclerotic plaques)
- circulation blockage (anastomoses of blood vessels)
- obesity (adipose tissue remodelling/ distribution)
- neuronal (stress, stroke/ brain injury)
- GI (tissue remodelling in response to diet/ inflammation)
- bone/ tissue (remodelling in case of fracture/ injury)

83
Q

compensation

A

body takes measures to function despite stress or defects in systems

ovetime can result in pathologies

  • ex. low blood volume (increase HR, hypertrophy - direct)
  • ex. low blood oxygenation (increase RR)
  • ex. metabolic acidosis (increase respiration (indirect))
  • ex. increased organ function (kidney failure), dehydration - fluid retention)

*if these things get worse or go on too long, you can go into decompensated phase

84
Q

decompensated

A

systems fail leading to death

ex. compensated shock: decreased peripheral blood flow (vasoconstriction), increase HR to increase/ maintain BP

ex. chronic kidney failure

ex. decompensated shock: compensatory mechanisms FAILS - blood pressure falls rapidly leading to death

*this is why it’s important to monitor vitals, things can change quick

85
Q
A

pathophysiology (10 decks)

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