Lecture #1: Introduction to Psych

Question 1

Define Psychology

Answer 1

• The scientific study of thoughts (difficult to measure) and behaviour (easier to measure)
• Psyche = mind
• Logos = study

Question 2

Scientific Approach

Answer 2

• Open-minded
• Test ideas
• Follow the evidence

Question 3

What Psychological research studies

Answer 3

• Study behaviour and behavioural disorders

Case study: Depression (SRTCS)

• Symptoms
• Rate
• Treatment
• Causes
• Susceptibility

Question 4

Stimuli

Answer 4

• things that can change or result in behaviour.
• Some are meaningful and others are filtered out.
• Their degree of meaningfulness depends on the individual and the env’nt.
• Meaningful stimuli = cause or change our behaviour.
• sounds, sights etc.

Question 5

Perceived behavioural control

Answer 5

• Link between one’s perception about their behavioural and their actual behaviour.
• Belief: I can control my behaviour = likely to diet
• Belief: I cannot control my behaviour = do not diet.

Question 6

What do we mean when we say behavior is ‘multifactorial’?

Answer 6

• There are many factors that influence behaviour => difficult to predict behaviour.
• Factors can interact with each other.
  1. Predictive power:
• Some factors are easier to predict behaviour with (stronger predictors)
• Weaker predictors

2. Individual differences
3. Culture differences
4. Reciprocal determinism
   - People influence other people (e.g. low mood can be shared).

Question 7

Biases

Answer 7

• Preferences in judgment

- 4 main types of biases.

Question 8

Confirmation bias

Answer 8

• The tendency to look for evidence that backs our stance.

To Solve:
- Meta-analysis: analyze a large amount of opinion and then use the average stance.

Question 9

Illusion of Causality

Answer 9

• The instinct to see patterns and associations between things.
• Helpful when there are real associations
• Cost: when there are false associations (called random relationships)

Question 10

Clustering Illusion

Answer 10

• Making associations when there isn’t enough data (range is too small).

Question 11

Apophenia

Answer 11

• Perceiving meaning between unassociated things
• Evolutionary advantage for survival
• E.g. seeing faces on inanimate objects (hard-wired to recognize faces for survival).

Question 12

Fallacies

Answer 12

• Errors in reasoning.

Question 13

Terror management theory

Answer 13

• Example of beliefs that have no supporting evidence
• How we deal with terror:
• Resort to rituals that will provide meaning (quell fear).

Question 14

Belief perseverance

Answer 14

• maintain our beliefs even when we know we are wrong
• b/c afraid of the consequences (factual) or take a self-esteem hit (emotional).
• E.g. refuse to believe I gave vanilla extract instead of maple syrup to the elderly people.

Question 15

1. Structuralism (school of thought) psychology

Answer 15

• Breaking down experiences into components (elements).
  Techniques:
• analytical Introspection to see common elements.
  Benefits:
• Credibility to psychology
• Sensation vs. perception.
• Unconscious processes underlie behaviour.

Limitations:
- Subjects reported inconsistent elements for their experiences.

Question 16

1. Functionalism psychology

Answer 16

• Our behaviours are the result of adaptations for survival.

Limitations:
- Mostly theoretical and difficult to test. - - e.g. anxiety = our fight or flight

Question 17

3. Gestalt psychology

Answer 17

• Experiences cannot be broken down into elements
• Context is important

Beneficial:
- Visual perception principles: ability to fill in gaps in our sight (make assumptions).

Limitations:
- Don’t explain why/how we have visual perception.

Question 18

4. Psychodynamics

Answer 18

-	Study of the unconscious and internal experiences. 
Techniques:
-	Talk therapy and dream analysis was used. 
Benefits: 
-	Developed talk therapy
-	Public awareness increased.
Limitations: 
-	Psychiatric patients (small sample).

Question 19

5. Behaviourism psychology

Answer 19

• The exclusive study of behaviour (by studying stimulus and response)
  Benefits:
• Principles of learning and learned behaviour (Reinforcement/punishment experiments)
  Limitations:
• Brain = black box: Couldn’t study mental processes/brain

Question 20

Reinforcement & punishment affecting behaviour

Answer 20

Importance:

• Understanding principles of learning.
• Understand learned behaviour.

Drawbacks:

• No mental processes.
• Doesn’t explain the exceptions (e.g. kids experimenting with bad language). - E.g.: goal of safe driving

Question 21

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 21

• Adding something to increase behaviour - Free gas if drive safe

Question 22

Negative Reinforcement

Answer 22

• Removing something to increase behaviour

- Stop seat belt beep; put on seatbelt

Question 23

Positive punishment

Answer 23

• Adding something to decrease behaviour - Speeding ticket; decrease unsafe driving.

Question 24

Negative punishment

Answer 24

• Removing something to decrease behaviour - take away license; decrease unsafe driving.

Question 25

6. Cognitive psychology

Answer 25

• study mental processes

- requires advanced technology (neuroimaging).

Question 26

1. Social/cultural psychology

Answer 26

• How social and cultural factors influence behaviour and decision.
• Individualism vs. collectivism