Lecture 1

Question 1

Define Anatomy

Answer 1

Up (ana) cutting (tome)

“The branch of science concerned with the bodily structure of humans, animals and other organisms”

Question 2

4 subdivisions of Anatomy

Answer 2

1.Gross Anatomy- examination without microscope

2. Microscopic annoying
   •Histology - Tissues
   •Cytology- Cells
3. Developmental Anatomy- changes from a fertilised egg to adult
4. Pathology- changes associated with disease

Question 3

Define Physiology

Answer 3

Nature (physis) study of (logia)

“The branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts”

Question 4

3 subdivisions of physiology

Answer 4

1. Cell physiology- functional interaction of cells
2. Systematic physiology- functional interaction of organs that make a system
3. Pathalogical Physiology- function affects cause by disease on an organ or system

Question 5

Define the term anatomical position?

Answer 5

Reference point for all anatomical nomenclature

Question 6

State anatomical position

Answer 6

1. Upright posture
2. Head eyes and toes facing forward
3. Arms by side
4. Palms facing upwards

Question 7

What does superior mean?

Answer 7

Towards the head

Question 8

What does inferior mean?

Answer 8

Away from the head

Question 9

Posterior (dorsal)

Answer 9

Towards the back of the body

Question 10

Anterior

Answer 10

Toward the front of the body

Question 11

Lateral

Answer 11

away from the midline of the body

Question 12

Medial

Answer 12

Towards the midline of the body

Question 13

Internal

Answer 13

Away from the surface of the body

Question 14

External

Answer 14

Towards or on the surface of the body

Question 15

Central

Answer 15

AT or near the centre of the body or organ

Question 16

Peripheral

Answer 16

External to or away from the the centre of the body or organ

Question 17

Proximal

Answer 17

Part of an extremity which is closer to the point of attachment to the trunk

Question 18

Distal

Answer 18

Part of an extremity which that is futher to the point of attatchment to the trunk

Question 19

Parietal

Answer 19

Pertaining to the outer boundary of a body cavity

Question 20

Visceral

Answer 20

Pertaining to the internal organs

Question 21

Main organ systems in the body

Answer 21

Endocrine 
Cardiovascular 
Respiratory 
Digestive 
Urinary

Question 22

The endocrine system definition

Answer 22

The second coordinating and integrating system of the body

Question 23

What 4 actions does the endocrine system do?

Answer 23

1. Maintain homeostasis
2. Control storage and Utilisation of energy
3. Regulation of growth development and reproduction
4. Respond to environmental stimuli

Question 24

Endorcrine system sends signals via hormones, what’s the definition of hormones?

Answer 24

Specific chemical messenger molecules that regulate the activity of cells and organs in the body

Question 25

How are hormones synthesised and secreted ?

Answer 25

By cell in endrocrine glands, first messenger

Question 26

Hormones are defined on their chemical structures, name the 3 different types?

Answer 26

Steroid Hormones (includes the sex hormones all of which are made of lipids made from cholesterol Amino acid derivatives - like adrenaline, derive from aminco acids , especially tyrosine Peptide hormones- (like insulin) which is the most numerous/diverse group of hormones

Question 27

What are the 4 types of intercellular signaling?

Answer 27

1. Endocrine 2. Paracrine 3. Autocrine 4. Signalling via attatchment molecules

Question 28

Define endocrine communication?

Answer 28

The activity of hormones of coordinating cellular activities in tissues in distant portions of the body.

Question 29

Endocrine communication Transmission: Chemical mediators : Distribution of effects:

Answer 29

Transmission; through the bloodstream Chemical mediators: hormones Distribution of effects: target cells are primarily in other tissues and organs and must have appropriate receptors

Question 30

Define paracrine signalling

Answer 30

The signalling and target cells are close together

Question 31

Paracrine signalling transmission: Chemical mediators: Distribution:

Answer 31

Transmission: Through extra cellular fluid Chemical mediators: paracrine factors Distribution affects: limited to local area, target cells must have appropriate receptors

Question 32

Define autocrine signalling

Answer 32

The signalling and target cell are the same

Question 33

Main endocrine glands

Answer 33

``` Pineal Gland - (melatonin) Thymus - (T lymphocytes) Pituary gland Adrenal gland Pancreas Testes Ovaries ```

Question 34

Pituary gland hormones produced

Answer 34

Growth hormones Gondadrophins - development of overies and testies Anti diuretic hormones - increases reabsorbtion of water

Question 35

Thyroid gland hormones

Answer 35

Thyroxine- controls rate of metabolism and rate glucose is used in respiration

Question 36

Pancreas hormones and functions

Answer 36

Insulin- Coventry excess glucose into glycogen in liver Glucagon- Converts glucogen back in glucose in live

Question 37

Posterior pituary gland realises anti diuretic hormone which reabsorbs fluid . What happens if this goes wrong?

Answer 37

Diabetes Insipidus * increased urination * Increased fluid intake

Question 38

Common glucose levels after normal mean and after meals

Answer 38

Normal glucose levels after normal meal are 4-7mM After heavy meal glucose levels rarely exceed 10mM

Question 39

ATP demands fluctuate... | Two hormones regulate glucose levels from the pancreas

Answer 39

Insulin - glucose into glycogen | Glucagon- glycogen into glucose

Question 40

The pancreas have 2 important cells name them and their fictions

Answer 40

B islets of langerhaan When blood glucose levels are high they release insulin which lowers BG level by storing glucose as glycogen fat and proteins A islets of langerhaan Produce glucagon when BG are low which increases Bg levels by breakdown of glycogen into glucose

Question 41

Define hyperglycaemia

Answer 41

The presence of abnormally high glucose levels in the blood in general is called hyperglycaemia

Question 42

Hyperglycaemia

Answer 42

When BG levels are ansmormally low

Question 43

What keep blood glucose levels constant when there's excess glucose

Answer 43

``` Change detected by B cells Increase in insulin secretion Activates enzymes converting glucose to glycogen Increase in uptake of glucose Levels return to normal ```

Question 44

Glucose In urine is called

Answer 44

Glycosuria

Question 45

Define diabetes Mellitus

Answer 45

Diabetes mellitus is characterised by glucose concentrations that are high enough to overwhelm the reabsorbtion capabilities of kidneys

Question 46

Characterise type 1 diabetes

Answer 46

Inadequate insulin production by the pancreatic beta cells, usually due to autoimmune attack on beta cells

Question 47

Characterise type 2 diabetes

Answer 47

Produce the correct amount of insulin but their tiessues do not respond to it properly , condition known as insulin resistance

Question 48

Homeostasis definition

Answer 48

The ability or tendency of an organism or cell to maintain a constant internal equilibrium by adjusting its physiological process

Question 49

What's the "internal environment"

Answer 49

Immediate surrounding of the cells Intracellular fluid and Extracellular fluid

Question 50

What's Extracelluar fluid

Answer 50

"The internal fluid that surrounds cells" Plasma - fluid portion of the blood Interstitial fluid- surrounds the cells but between plasma and cells

Question 51

What's intracelluar fluid

Answer 51

"The fluid within a cell" (cytosol) Ion concentrations are different then ECF to maintain concentration gradients