Lec 9 Flashcards
What is encoding and Retrieval
Encoding happens after performing a study task and encoding word into memory. Encoding uses contextual information (who, where, when what etc.)
Retrieval uses cues by the experimenter (e.g. focus on study list), or self-generated cues (rating pleasentness of words in task). different for recall and recognition tasks.
Encoding and modal model
modal model does not clearly explain encoding, does not account for emotional encoding. Modal is just a structural account, and rehearsal from STM to LTM does not always produce good long term memory
level of processing model (LOP)
orthography: spelling (e.g. capitalisation)
phonology: sounding
meaning: semantic
ortography gives weakest depth, meaning gives strongest depth
LOP effect (craik, 1977)
intentional learning instructions vs (letters, phonology, meaning)
intentional instructions had same mean correct recognition as semantic, then phonology, then orthographic. showed that when learning we use semantic processes
intention to learn (Hyde and Jenkins, 1973)
semantic vs orthographic testing
told in each condition if it was a memory test or no test instruction. Results were the same for incidental learning and intentional learning. Semantic processing better than ortography processing
evidence for LOP (Jacoby Craik and Begg, 1979)
two different size pictures of animals paired together. two animals that had closer size pictures had greater processing than very different size images used because you had to give more meaning.
LOP evaluations (Craik and Tulving, 1975)
Using connections and providing different retrieval cue pathways.
Does a word fit in the sentence, when the sentence is more elaborate better recall of words, have to make more connections with event memories, and concepts
method of loci
think about location, and place memory objects around spots of known location. use spatial location for memory
deep processing and learning
organisation: method of loci to promote connections
Chunking: chunking based on meaning or structure of items (e.g. chunking phone numbers into 3 digits when remembering it).
Independent assesments of depth
deep processing is which promotes good memory. deep processing does not take longer, and the processing does not need to be difficult.
Empirical problems with LOP
meaning vs distinctiveness
when asked to identify elephant and given the retrieval cues (Has a trunk vs animal with two letter E’s), has a trunk identifies better because is distinctive.
Eysenck & Esyenck
semantic: atypical (distinctive) descriptor e.g. saggy glove, and typical (non-distinctive) descriptor e.g. leather glove.
Non-semantic: distinctive pronunciation e.g. glove rhymes with stove vs non-distinctive (correct) pronunciation e.g. love rhymes with glove. Distinctive has better mean words recognised, especially for pronunciation words.
Distinctiveness vs connections
Connections and relationships support retrieval (semantic) by providing retrieval paths to easily access memories.
Distinctiveness help discriminate among retrieved items that may be similar. Useful for recognition tasks
Rhyming and encoding
Rhymes give meaning and work together to provide structure, integration and cues.
Emotional encoding and Cahill & McGaugh
some of the clearest memories are from emotionally charged events.
Cahill had a lab experiment where kids saw slideshow of graphic surgery slides, one group told it was real and other told fake. real group had better memory for the emotional material
What do emotions do
Increases arousal and attention. We pay more attention to emotional items.
Flashbulb memories
People report vivid memories after major disturbing events e.g. 9/11, but sometimes the memory is displaced, yet people still are very confident in their memory
retreival cues (tulving, 1967)
tip of tongue effect
Tulving had participants attempt recall of 36 words, on each recall attempt participants remembered 4 new words, and also forgot 4 previous words
Encoding - retrieval interactions
Memory works depend on how the material is going to be used and how it will be tested. Semantic processing is good for conceptually based tests e.g. this quiz
Stein (1978) encoding-retrieval interactions
Group 1, a sentence study, used a semantic encoding task (does the word fit?), group 2 a letter study, used orthographic task (which is capital letter). When being tested on a sentence test, semantic task was better, but orthographic task was better for case testing. Goes against LOP model, shows that memory is better for what you need to know later.
Transfer appropriate processing (TAP) Morris, Bransford and Franks (1977)
Compared standard recognition test with phonological test were participants choose words that sounded liked studied words. found that phonological testing e.g. does the word rhyme with… is better than semantic testing, e.g. does word fit sentence. Transfer is best when the test processess overlap with study processing e.g. both phonological
State dependent learning (Baddeley & Golden)
You do better at a test when you study in the same place as the testing place. did experiment in study/testing in the water vs the dry
Testing effects in student learning
Indirect test effects: study more if they have a test
Direct test effects: additional encoding of material or retrieved material during a test.
Students studied words and had multi choice questions, varied number and timing of tests. found that group tested early and more frequently did better than those who tested later.
Roediger and Karpicke with different study/testing
Had a study-test (STSTSTS) pattern, had a repeated study (SSST), repeated test (STTT). initially, all did pretty equal. one week later repeated study test did not do as well as other groups.
