Learning Theories Flashcards
Classical Conditioning
In classical conditioning, a neutral (conditioned) stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus alone eventually elicits the response that is naturally elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov’s original studies, the meat powder was the unconditioned stimulus and salivation was the unconditioned response. A tone was the conditioned stimulus; and, as a result of its pairing with meat powder, the tone eventually elicited a conditioned response of salivation.
Classical Extinction And Spontaneous Recovery
Classical extinction is the elimination of a classically conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Often, an extinguished conditioned response shows spontaneous recovery - i.e., it recurs in response to the CS following extinction without additional pairing of the CS and US.
Cognitive Therapy/Beck (Schemas, Automatic Thoughts, Collaborative Empiricism, Socratic Dialogue)
Beck’s cognitive therapy (CT) attributes depression and other psychopathology to certain cognitive phenomena including dysfunctional cognitive schemas (underlying cognitive structures), automatic thoughts (surface level cognitions), and cognitive distortions (systematic errors in information processing). CT is referred to as “collaborative empiricism” because of its emphasis on a collaborative relationship between therapist and client. Cognitive therapists often use Socratic dialogue (questioning) to help clients reach logical conclusions about problems and their consequences.
Differential Reinforcement
Differential reinforcement (e.g., DRA, DRO, and DRI) is an operant technique that combines positive reinforcement and extinction. During a specified period of time, the individual is reinforced when he/she engages in behaviors other than the target behavior.
EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization And Reprocessing)
EMDR was originally developed as an intervention for PTSD but has since been applied to other disorders. It combines rapid lateral eye movements with exposure and other techniques drawn from cognitive, behavioral, and psychodynamic approaches. Some research suggests that its effectiveness is not due to rapid eye movements but, instead, to exposure to the feared event (i.e., to extinction).
Escape and Avoidance Conditioning
Escape conditioning is an application of negative reinforcement in which the target behavior is an escape behavior - i.e., the organism engages in the behavior in order to escape the negative reinforcer. Avoidance conditioning combines classical conditioning with negative reinforcement. With avoidance conditioning, a cue (positive discriminative stimulus) signals that the negative reinforcer is about to be applied so that the organism can avoid the negative reinforcer by performing the target behavior in the presence of the cue.
Functional Behavioral Assessment
A functional behavioral assessment (FBA) is used to clarify the characteristics of a target behavior and determine its antecedents and consequences in order to identify an alternative behavior that serves the same functions and function-based interventions that can be used to substitute the alternative behavior for the target behavior.
Higher-Order Conditioning
Higher-order conditioning occurs when a previously established CS serves as a US to establish a conditioned response for a new conditioned (neutral) stimulus - i.e., the new neutral stimulus is paired with the established CS so that, eventually, the new neutral stimulus produces a conditioned response.
In Vivo Aversion Therapy/Covert Sensitization
In vivo aversion therapy utilizes counterconditioning to reduce the attractiveness of a stimulus or behavior by repeatedly pairing that stimulus or behavior in “real life” (in vivo) with a stimulus that produces an undesirable or unpleasant response. Pairing alcohol consumption with electric shock to reduce alcohol use is an example of in vivo aversive counterconditioning. In this situation, the alcohol is the CS, the electric shock is the US, and fear or discomfort is the UR/CR. Covert sensitization is similar to in vivo aversion therapy except that the CS and US are presented in imagination.
In Vivo Exposure with Response Prevention/Flooding
In vivo exposure with response prevention is a classical extinction technique that involves exposing the individual in “real life” (in vivo) to anxiety-arousing stimuli (the CS) without the original US while preventing the individual from making his/her usual avoidance response. Flooding is a type of exposure that involves exposing the individual to the most anxiety-arousing stimuli for an extended period.
Information Processing Model (Sensory Memory, STM, LTM)
The information processing (multi-store) model describes memory as consisting of three separate, but interacting, stores: sensory memory (sensory register), short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Sensory memory seems to be capable of storing a great deal of information, but the information is retained for no more than a few seconds. Information in sensory memory is transferred to STM when it becomes the focus of attention. STM holds a limited amount of information, and, without rehearsal, information begins to fade within 30 seconds. Information is likely to be transferred from STM to LTM when it is encoded, especially when encoding involves elaborative rehearsal (relating new information to existing information). The capacity of LTM seems to be unlimited.
Insight Learning/Kohler
Insight learning (the “aha” experience) refers to the apparent sudden understanding of the relationship between elements in a problem-solving situation. Insight learning was originally described by Kohler as a result of his research with chimpanzees.
Interference Theory (Retroactive and Proactive Interference)
Interference theory proposes that the inability to learn or recall information is due to the disruptive effects of previously or subsequently learned information. Retroactive interference occurs when newly learned information interferes with the recall of previously learned information, while proactive interference occurs when prior learning interferes with the learning or recall of subsequent information.
Latent Learning/Tolman
Tolman’s model of latent learning proposes that learning can occur without reinforcement and without being manifested in performance improvement. Tolman’s research showed that rats formed “cognitive maps” of mazes without being reinforced for doing so.
Law Of Effect/Thorndike
Thorndike’s law of effect proposes that, when behaviors are followed by “satisfying consequences,” they are more likely to increase or occur again. This theory was originally derived from studies in which hungry cats were placed in “puzzle boxes” and had to perform a particular behavior in order to escape from the box and obtain food.
Learned Helplessness Model/Reformulated Version
The learned helplessness model was originally derived from the observation that animals who were subjected to an uncontrollable negative event (inescapable electric shock) subsequently did not try to escape that event when they were able to do so. The reformulated version of the model added attributions to the original theory and proposed that some forms of depression are due to the tendency to attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global factors. A subsequent revision acknowledged the role of attributions but proposed that they’re important only to the extent that they contribute to a sense of hopelessness.
Levels of Processing Model
The levels-of-processing model proposes that differences in memory are not due to different stores or stages but to different levels of processing. The model distinguishes between three levels - structural, phonemic, and semantic. The semantic level is the deepest level of processing and leads to the best retention.
Matching Law
When using concurrent schedules of reinforcement, there are two or more simultaneous and independent schedules of reinforcement, each for a different response. According to the matching law, in this situation, the organism will match its relative frequency of responding to the relative frequency of reinforcement for each response.
