Learning Theories

Question 1

Bandura (1961)

Answer 1

Aggressive VS non-aggressive role models.
72 children, 24 with aggressive role model, 24 with non-aggressive role model, 24 in control group.
Aggressive role model = verbal + physical aggression.
Little aggression in non-aggressive role model and control groups.
Male role models had bigger influence.

Question 2

Bandura (1963a)

Answer 2

If children would be more aggressive when watching a film or cartoon.
96 children - 48 boys, 48 girls, aged 3-5.
Bandura concludes that children will imitate filmed aggression in the same way as live aggressive role models.

Question 3

Bandura (1965)

Answer 3

To see when a role model is rewarded or punished and how likely the children are to imitate.
66 children - 33 boys, 33 girls, aged 3-5.
Children less likely to imitate if role model is punished, but can still imitate.
Can still imitate with no consequence.
Can still imitate if given incentives.

Question 4

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 4

Learning by association.
Before conditioning — Neutral Stimulus -> No Response.
During conditioning — Neutral Stimulus -> Unconditioned Stimulus -> Unconditioned Response.
After conditioning — Neutral Stimulus -> Conditioned Response.
It is artificial.

Question 5

What was the AIM of Watson & Rayner’s (1928) study?

Answer 5

To find out if classical conditioning works on humans.
More specifically, to find out if a fear responds can be conditioned into a 9 month old baby boy.
Also, to see if the fear response will be generalised to other animals and objects.

Question 6

What was the SAMPLE of Watson & Rayner’s (1928) study?

Answer 6

One boy, 9 months old, Albert B.
He was 11 months old when the conditioning began.
His mother was a wet nurse at the hospital and Albert was chosen because he seemed healthy and quire fearless.
Opportunity sample.

Question 7

What was the PROCEDURE of Watson & Rayner’s (1928) study?

Answer 7

9 months old — Albert was tested with a white rat, and other stimuli to see if he had a fear reaction. He didn’t; this shows they were Neutral Stimuli (NS). They also banged an iron bar to check his fear response, which he cried to; this shows the noise was an Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) and crying was an Unconditioned Response (UCR).
11 months old — Albert was conditioned. He was shown the white rat 3 times, and it was paired with the iron bar. Albert whimpered & was presented with this again one week later.

Question 8

What was the RESULTS of Watson & Rayner’s (1928) study?

Answer 8

Albert then whimpered when the rat was presented alone.
This suggests that the NS is now a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and Albert’s crying is a Conditioned Response (CR).
They tested Albert’s reaction to other white fluffy things, and he showed similar fear responses to the rabbit and Santa mask. This is generalisation of response.

Question 9

What was the CONCLUSIONS of Watson & Rayner’s (1928) study?

Answer 9

They had successfully conditioned Albert to fear the white rat and that his fear response generalised to other white, fluffy things and transferred to other situations (lecture theatre).
The conditioning lasted over a month, and Watson proposed the conditioned fear responses would stay with Albert for a lifetime.

Question 10

Evaluation of Watson & Rayner (1928).

Answer 10

Generalisability — it was done on a single child, so it is unrepresentative as the baby may be unusual in many different ways. If Albert wasn’t a healthy child, then the results cannot be generalised to all children.
Reliability — it has standardised procedures and was carefully documentated and filmed, which means it can be easily replicated, and has inter-rater reliability.
Application — it has lead to research into therapies like systematic desensitisation, where the patient uses a fear hierarchy to approach their phobia.
Validity — the study has careful controls, e.g., Watson hiding behind a curtain while hitting the iron bar. However, it lacks ecological validity because Albert was in an artificial environment, taken away from his familiarity.
Ethics — the study is clearly unethical as they deliberately caused distress to an infant and continued when he was upset (ignored principle of reducing harm). Albert’s mother gave consent and was present the whole time (valid presumptive consent) and she was able to withdraw him, and in fact did so.

Question 11

What is conditioned extinction recovery?

Answer 11

Extinction is when conditioned stimuli gradually lose their association with the original unconditioned stimuli and they revert back to being a neutral stimulus again.
Recovery is when an association has formed, and it is never truly forgotten. Even after extinction, a conditioned response can reappear.

Question 12

What is stimulus generalisation?

Answer 12

Once a conditioned response is formed, there is a tendency for it to reappear in response to things other than the original conditioned stimulus.

Question 13

What was the AIM of Ivan Pavlov’s (1927) study?

Answer 13

To find out if a reflexive behaviour can be produced in new situations through learning.
In particular, to see if associating a reflex with a neutral stimulus (a sound) causes learning to take place, producing a conditioned reflex in new situations.

Question 14

What was the PROCEDURE of Ivan Pavlov’s (1927) study?

Answer 14

Variety of 35 dog breeds.
Pavlov placed each dog in a sealed room that didn’t;t allow the dog to see, hear or smell anything from outside.
Dog was strapped to harness to stop it from moving about and its mouth was linked to a tube that drained saliva away.
Dog salivated to food (control condition).
Dog didn’t salivate to tuning fork.
Pairs sound with food multiple times until the sound alone causes dog to salivate.

Question 15

What was the RESULTS of Ivan Pavlov’s (1927) study?

Answer 15

After 20 trials of sound and food together, Pavlov would use just the sound and could produce saliva.
Pavlov found that the conditioned dog started to salivate after 9 seconds after hearing the sound, and by 45 seconds had produced 11 drops of saliva.

Question 16

What was the CONCLUSIONS of Ivan Pavlov’s (1927) study?

Answer 16

The NS, after being repeatedly paired with an UCS, turned into a CS, producing the CR all by itself.
On average, it took about 20 trials to condition.

Question 17

Evaluation of Pavlov (1927).

Answer 17

Generalisation — we are all animals, so the same principles should apply, but humans and dogs are not the same, so is it right to make this comparison?
Reliability — Pavlov retested over and over again over 25 years, so his study is highly replicable as he used standardised procedures.
Applications — it has gone on to treat addictions, change education and deepen our understanding of behaviour. However, it has also led to “gay conversion” camps based on theses scientific principles.
Validity — Laboratory experiment allowed for control of extraneous and confounding variables. However, it is an artificial setting so lacks ecological validity.
Ethics — Pavlov treated the dogs like family, and the benefit of the research may outweigh the costs. However, is it ethical to out cannulas on dogs and restrain them? Not according to scientific procedures act of 1986, but Pavlov did this nearly 100 years before it was put in place.

Question 18

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 18

It is learning a behaviour for a voluntary response. It is learnt through a reward-punishment process.

Question 19

What is reinforcement? (operant conditioning)

Answer 19

It is when the desired behaviour is rewarded. This makes it more likely to be repeated.
Positive reinforcement — rewards the desired behaviour by adding something pleasant (food, affection, compliment, etc.)
Negative reinforcement — rewards the desired behaviour by removing something unpleasant (taking away pain or distress, stopping criticism, etc.)
Primary reinforcement — when the reward is something we want naturally (food, warmth, affection).
Secondary reinforcement — a reward we have learned to value (money).

Question 20

What is punishment? (operant conditioning)

Answer 20

When undesirable behaviour produces unpleasant consequences.
Positive punishment — punishes the undesirable behaviour by adding something unpleasant (shock, criticism).
Negative punishment — punishes by removing something pleasant (being grounded, deducting money, removing Xbox).

Question 21

What are schedules of reinforcement? (operant conditioning)

Answer 21

Fixed Interval — the reward turns up at a regular time.
Variable Interval — the reward turns up but you can’t be sure exactly when.
Fixed Ratio — the reward turns up every time the desired behaviour is carried out so often.
Variable Ratio — the reward is dispensed randomly, after a changing number of behaviours, such as feeding the rat after one lever-press, then after 5, then after 3, etc.

Question 22

What is shaping behaviour? (operant conditioning)

Answer 22

Shaping involves changing the reinforcement to produce very precise behaviours.
1. First, you reward any behaviour in the general direction you want.
2. Later, you reward behaviours that are similar to the specific behaviour you have in mind.
3. Eventually, you only reward the specific behaviour you are looking for.

Question 23

What is Social Learning Theory?

Answer 23

1. The behaviour must be modelled - must be carried out by a role model.
2. Observer must identify with the role model - normally because they are similar in appearance, gender, interests, etc.
3. Behaviour must be observed.

Question 24

What are the 4 stages is social learning theory?

Answer 24

1. Attention - we pay attention to the model’s actions.
2. Retention - it must be retained in our memory.
3. Reproduction - where we attempt to carry out the behaviour or imitate it.
4. Motivation - must have a reason to carry out the behaviour (e.g., a reward).

Question 25

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Answer 25

Reinforcement is received by the model rather than the learner.
Can be positive or negative.

Question 26

What is the key question AO1?

Answer 26

Is anorexia nervosa caused by nurture factors?

AO1:
1. Prevalence rates according to the NHS - 5% of British girls.
2. Symptoms - skipping meals, lying about what you’ve eaten, overwhelming fear of gaining weight, exercising excessively, making yourself sick, reduced sex drive, poor circulation, possible other mental health conditions (depression, anxiety).
3. Luizel Ramos - was a size zero model who died from a heart attack brought on by her anorexia. Italian fashion shows now ban size zero models because of this.
4. Magazines may use photoshop to make models look thinner - makes people think that is the ideal body, leading to anorexia.

Question 27

What is the key question AO3?

Answer 27

Is anorexia nervosa caused by nurture factors?

AO3:
1. Operant conditioning - people lose weight if they are praised for their slimness, or people find them more attractive.
2. Positive reinforcement - may lead to anorexia if it goes too far. Negative reinforcement also explains extreme dieting, as women may stop getting criticism when they lose weight.
3. Size zero models may be role models for people reading magazines, which may lead to them imitating the anorexic diet of Ramos.
4. Vicarious reinforcement - people see a role model getting rewarded for losing weight, more likely to imitate it. (Katie Green - she quit, rather than be a role model for extreme weight loss).