Learning Psychology

Question 1

4 AO1 points: Evaluate classical conditioning as an explanation of learning

Answer 1

1. Association- Pavlov proposed that learning is done through association. Repeated association leads to conditioning in his studies involving dogs.
2. CC- In conditioning, a neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with a unconditioned stimulus (UCS) until it turns into a Conditioned Stimulus (CS). The CS produces a Conditioned Response (CR).
3. Generalisation- Not only that, but the CR can be generalised to other stimuli that are similar to the CS. This is stimulus generalisation and it explains things like phobias.
4. Nature vs nurture- Classical Conditioning is on the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate because it suggests that all behaviour comes from learned associations rather than innate predispositions.

Question 2

2 Strengths: Evaluate classical conditioning as an explanation of learning

Answer 2

1. Pavlov- Classical Conditioning is supported by lab research on animals, such as Pavlov’s studies on dogs that learned to salivate when a bell rang.
2. Watson and Rayner- found they could condition a phobia of white fluffy things into an otherwise ‘remarkably fearless child, scared only by loud noises’ baby.

Question 3

2 weaknesses: Evaluate classical conditioning as an explanation of learning

Answer 3

1. Complex behaviour- However, this research may not generalise to humans, who have more complex behaviour. Attempts to condition homosexuals out of their sexual orientation have failed, according to Seligman.
2. Nature- The theory also ignores the nature side of the nature/nurture debate, since people may be born with certain essential behaviours (like homosexuality) which cannot be un-learned.
3. Best- Classical Conditioning might also be too simplistic since it ignores motives and personality. Best was able to keep drinking in spite of aversion therapy, which suggests that there is more to human behaviour than just stimulus-response.

Question 4

4 AO1 points: Evaluate Pavlov’s research on classical conditioning

Answer 4

1. Pavlov had been studying the dogs’ salivary reflex but noticed that they started salivating at other things beside food - like the sight of the researchers or the sound of their approaching footsteps. To stop this, Pavlov built a special environment to test the dogs.
2. Pavlov tested that food produced saliva but the sound of a metronome did not. This showed that the metronome was a neutral stimulus for the dogs.
3. After pairing the sound with food 20 times, the sound became a conditioned stimulus and Pavlov collected 11 drops of saliva after the dog heard it.

Question 5

2 strengths: Evaluate Pavlov’s research on classical conditioning

Answer 5

1. Generalisation- Pavlov claimed his research on dogs could be generalised to humans. He thought this because of the Theory of Evolution, which suggests that humans learn the same way animals do because we have the same ancestors.
2. Reliability- Used standardised procedures
3. Applications- If this research does generalise to humans, it has many applications, such as aversion therapy, which uses conditioning to cure people of addictions.

Question 6

2 weaknesses: Evaluate Pavlov’s research on classical conditioning

Answer 6

1. Ecological validity- Another problem might be the artificial nature of Pavlov’s tests, which involves the dogs being tied up in sealed cages. You cannot expect such unrealistic tests to explain or predict behaviour in the real world.
2. Best and alcoholics- However, aversion therapy doesn’t always work on humans. Some alcoholics carry on drinking despite conditioning and aversion therapy was disastrous when it was used on homosexuals on the 1960s.

Question 7

Give 4 AO1 points: Evaluate Operant Conditioning as a theory of learning.

Answer 7

1. Skinner proposed that learning is done through reinforcement. Repeated reinforcement leads to conditioning in his studies involving rats and pigeons.
2. Positive reinforcement adds something pleasant whenever you carry out the desired behaviour; negative reinforcement takes away something unpleasant.
3. It is important that the reinforcement is contingent (clearly linked to the desired behaviour) and continguent (taking place soon after the desired behaviour).
4. Operant Conditioning is on the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate because it suggests that all behaviour comes from reinforcement rather than innate predispositions.

Question 8

Give 2 strengths: Evaluate Operant Conditioning as a theory of learning.

Answer 8

1. Skinner- Operant Conditioning is supported by lab research on animals, such as Skinner’s studies on rats that learned to press levers when rewarded with food.
2. Hobbs & Holt- This research seems to generalise to humans. Token Economy Programmes have improved the behaviour of prisoners according to Hobbs & Holt (1976).
3. Latham and Dossett found that mountain beaver trappers responded better to variable ratio pay.

Question 9

Give 2 weaknesses: Evaluate Operant Conditioning as a theory of learning

Answer 9

Nature/nurture- The theory ignores the nature side of the nature/nurture debate, since people may be born with certain predispositions that don’t react to reward.

Simplistic- Operant Conditioning might also be too simplistic since it ignores motives and personality. There is a cognitive side to human behaviour that is recognised by Social Learning Theory instead.

Question 10

Give 4 AO1 points: Evaluate social learning theory as an explanation of learning

Answer 10

1. Stages of SLT Attention, Retention, Reproduction & Motivation
2. Vicarious reinforcement: When an observer witnesses the model being rewarded for the behaviour.
3. Modelling When one individual displays a particular behaviour in the presence of another.

Question 11

Give 2 strengths: Evaluate social learning theory as an explanation of learning

Answer 11

1. Bandura found that 4 factors are required to replicate the behaviour. A to the behaviour of the role model, R of the observed behaviour, R of the behaviour in an appropriate situation and M to repeat.
2. Bandura found that children who witnessed the model being aggressive were more likely to partially or completely imitate the aggression.
3. James Bulger- 10yr old boys that abducted and tortured James Bulger in Liverpool after watching Chucky in Childs Play 3.

Question 12

Give 2 weaknesses: Evaluate social learning theory as an explanation of learning

Answer 12

1. Kendler- Doesn’t take into account genetic factors. Kendler showed that identical twins are more similar in their level of aggression than non-identical twins.
2. Bandura’s study was in an artificial environment. So the results might lack ecological validity.

Question 13

Give 4 AO1 points: Evaluate Bandura et al’s (1961) study.

Answer 13

1. In 1961, Bandura, Ross & Ross used a sample of 72 children, 36 boys and 36 girls, from the Stamford University nursery school.
2. The children played in groups of 6 and some of them were exposed to an adult role model who went through a scripted routine.
3. In the Aggressive condition, the adult attacked a 6’ Bobo Doll. Others saw a non-aggressive adult role model and a Control group saw no model at all.
4. The children were then observed with a Bobo Doll of their own. On average, there were 13 acts of “Mallet Aggression” in the Control group, but this when down to 0.5 for girls and 6.7 for boys if they had seen a non-aggressive same-sex model

Question 14

Give 2 strengths: Evaluate Bandura et al’s (1961) study.

Answer 14

1. Standardised procedures- However, Bandura did have standardised procedures that were easy to replicate. He did replicate the study again in 1963 and 1965, getting results that back up his ideas about imitation of role models.
2. Ethics- There’s also the problem of ethics, because Bandura may have left the children with long-term aggression problems by giving them these role models.

Question 15

Give 2 weaknesses: Evaluate Bandura et al’s (1961) study.

Answer 15

1. Low ecological validity- Bandura’s study is low in ecological validity. It is not normal for children to see an adult attacking a toy and saying things like “Sock him on the nose!”
2. Low internal reliability- Another problem is that Bobo Dolls are made to be hit. The children may have believed the experimenter wanted them to attack the Bobo Doll with the mallet.

Question 16

Give 4 AO1 points: Assess the findings of Bandura et al (1961)

Answer 16

1. Children who had witnessed the aggressive role model were more likely to completely or partially imitate the aggression.
2. Children who had observed non aggressive behaviour or those who had not observed an adult at all displayed much less aggressive behaviour. (none in 70% of cases)
3. Boys were more likely to imitate aggression shown by a same sex model
4. Boys were more likely to imitate physical aggression not verbal aggression.

Question 17

Give 2 strengths: Assess the findings of Bandura et al (1961)

Answer 17

1. Standardised procedures- However, Bandura did have standardised procedures that were easy to replicate. He did replicate the study again in 1963 and 1965, getting results that back up his ideas about imitation of role models.
2. Ethics- There’s also the problem of ethics, because Bandura may have left the children with long-term aggression problems by giving them these role models.

Question 18

Give 2 weaknesses: Assess the findings of Bandura et al (1961)

Answer 18

1. Low ecological validity- Bandura’s study is low in ecological validity. It is not normal for children to see an adult attacking a toy and saying things like “Sock him on the nose!”
2. Low internal reliability- Another problem is that Bobo Dolls are made to be hit. The children may have believed the experimenter wanted them to attack the Bobo Doll with the mallet.

Question 19

Give 4 AO1: Evaluate Bandura et al’s (1963) study

Answer 19

1. Aim- To investigate whether a filmed model would have the same effect as a live model on children’s aggression. Secondary aim of whether a cartoon aggression would have similar impacts.
2. Procedure- Lab experiment with independent design. 48 boys and 48 girls from the Stanford university nursery.
3. IV- Live aggression model, filmed realistic aggression, cartoon aggression condition and control group.
4. Findings- Mean total aggressive actions 83 (filmed), 92 (filmed realistic) and 99 (cartoon)

Question 20

Give 2 strengths: Evaluate Bandura et al’s (1963) study

Answer 20

1. Control of extraneous variables- Children were matched for aggression, reducing the impact of individual differences in aggression. Also observing the behaviour one at a time reduced the possibility that a child may imitate the behaviour of another child.
2. Application to the Sabido method- pioneering the use of telenovela to tackle specific social problems around the world. Research says that they have been highly effective in prompting behavioural change.

Question 21

Give 2 weaknesses: Evaluate Bandura et al’s (1963) study

Answer 21

1. Risk of demand characteristics- Elements of the procedure could have cued the children as to how they were to behave. Noble says that one child on arriving said ‘look mummy that’s the doll we have to hit’.
2. Socially sensitive research as it suggests that allowing your children to watch aggressive TV which is prevalent even in cartoons increases their risk of them being aggressive.

Question 22

Give 4 AO1: Evaluate Bandura et al’s (1965) study.

Answer 22

1. Aim- consider whether reinforcement and punishment of an aggressive model would influence the aggression displayed by observers (children) in response to frustration.
2. Procedure- 33 boys and 33 girls from Stanford university.
3. Groups- Model rewarded condition, model punished condition and no consequence condition.
4. Afterwards they were purposely frustrated and taken into the playroom. All 3 groups were later offered attractive rewards to aggress to the doll.
5. Findings- In the model punished group there was significantly less aggression but the difference was removed once the reward was introduced.

Question 23

Give 2 strengths: Evaluate Bandura et al’s (1965) study.

Answer 23

1. Control of extraneous variables- Children were matched for aggression, reducing the impact of individual differences in aggression. Also observing the behaviour one at a time reduced the possibility that a child may imitate the behaviour of another child.
2. Application to the Sabido method- pioneering the use of telenovela to tackle specific social problems around the world. Research says that they have been highly effective in prompting behavioural change.

Question 24

Give 2 weaknesses: Evaluate Bandura et al’s (1965) study.

Answer 24

1. Risk of demand characteristics- Elements of the procedure could have cued the children as to how they were to behave. Noble says that one child on arriving said ‘look mummy that’s the doll we have to hit’.
2. Socially sensitive research as it suggests that allowing your children to watch aggressive TV which is prevalent even in cartoons increases their risk of them being aggressive.

Question 25

Give 4 procedure points of Becker

Answer 25

1. One group of Fijian girls were questioned when television was just introduced in 1995 and a different group of girls were questioned 3 years later in 1995.
2. DV was eating behaviour measured in a standard questionnaire, EAT-26 and general attitudes to eating and body image.
3. 63 ethnic Fijian girls with a mean age of 17 and second sample was 65 girls of same age.
4. Participants were interviewed and completed the EAT-26 questionnaire individually in their own homes. 1998 group were asked additional questionnaires such as: Have you ever tried to change your diet to change your weight?

Question 26

Give 3 findings of Becker

Answer 26

1. 11.3% reported purging in 1998 compared to none in 1995.
2. Dysfunctional eating scores of above the threshold of 20 increased by 16.5%.
3. In 1998 69% had dieted which was alien to Fijian culture before.

Question 27

Give 4 AO1 points: Evaluate the use animal studies in learning theories.

Answer 27

1. Pavlov- Classical conditioning on dogs…
2. Skinner- Operant conditioning on rats…
3. Harlow- Infant monkeys in a cage with 2 wire mothers one with a feeding bottle and one wrapped in soft cloth. But then were psychologically harmed and couldn’t socialise with other monkeys and rejected their young.

Question 28

Give 2 supports: Evaluate the use animal studies in learning theories.

Answer 28

1. Ethical- Fewer ethical issues as informed consent is not required and psychological harm is more acceptable. It wouldn’t be possible to keep humans in a laboratory for lengthy research studies.
2. Generalisability- More complex behaviours can be studied in mammals and generalised to humans, for example classical conditioning.

Question 29

Give 2 opposition: Evaluate the use animal studies in learning theories.

Answer 29

1. Ethical- Animal experimentation may be unethical. Pain and suffering may be unavoidable in most animal experiments. This ranges from being caged in a lab, to surgery like in Pavlov’s study and death as in Pavlov’s study 30 dogs were killed.
2. Generalisability- May not be able to generalise from animals to humans especially when they are complex behaviours. Conditioned reflexes are similar but more complex behaviours such as eating disorders are more complex.

Question 30

Give 4 AO1 points: Evaluate the use of observations in learning theories

Answer 30

1. Overt observation- Participant is aware they’re being observed.
2. Covert observation- Participant is unaware they’re being observed.
3. Participant- observer is a participant in the behaviour being observed.
4. Non participant- Observer is not a participant in the behaviour being observed

Question 31

Give 2 strengths: Evaluate the use of observations in learning theories

Answer 31

1. Greater validity- Less risk of demand characteristics as what people actually do vs what they say they do is often different. Making it more valid then self report data.
2. Bandura used interrater reliability so less concern of observer bias.

Question 32

Give 2 weaknesses: Evaluate the use of observations in learning theories

Answer 32

1. Observer bias- Observer may see what they expect to see
2. Think- Cannot provide information on what people think.

Question 33

What was Watson and Rayner’s procedure?

Answer 33

1. 11 month old albert was taken to a lab and a white rat was presented to him. When he reached towards the rat the bar was struck loudly behind his head.
2. A week later he was paired 5 times with the white rat and the bar above his head.
3. He was then showed blocks which he displayed no fear to highlight he wasn’t just getting more scared generally.
4. He was brought back and tested his fear response to a range of different objects.
5. He was then tested in a new environment.
6. He was then tested with objects that looked like the white rat eg a rabbit, a Santa Clause mask.

Question 34

Give the findings of Watson and Rayner’s study

Answer 34

1. By session 2 he showed more caution to the rat and pulled away when he nuzzled him.
2. After further conditioning he began to cry and tried to rapidly crawl away.
3. Further sessions revealed that Alberts fear reaction to white furry objects remained but became less extreme when he was in a different environment and after time.