Learning & Motivation Flashcards
What are the 4 different schedules of partial reinforcement (PRF) and their effect on response rate
Ratio (Rft is based on number of responses) and interval (Rft is based on time) - fixed or variable
Fixed ratio (FR) Fixed interval (FI) Variable ratio (VR) Variable interval (VI)
Fixed & variable ratio produce the highest rate of response
Fixed interval produces a higher response rate than variable interval, however less than ratio
What is extinction and the partial reinforcement extinction effect (PREE), and what are two explainations of this effect
Where the established response tends to decline when the reinforcer is removed (zero contingency between response and reinforcement)
PREE - partial reinforcement is more resistant to extinction compared to continuous reinforcement
motivation - subjects in a PRF schedule become more resilient to frustration due to a weak contiguity, so extinction is slower
discriminative stimuli - CRF is very distinguishable from extinction compared to PRF, so extinction is a more effective discriminative stimulus in CRF leading to more effective extinction
What is a discriminative stimuli and some examples
An event/context in the presence of which a response is either reinforced, or not (S+ & S-)
Usually lights, tones etc. but can also be contexts, emotional/physiological states or the passage of time
What is Generalisation & Discrimination
Generalisation - the extent to which a response transfers to similar novel stimuli (generalisation gradient, decreases with extremely different stimuli)
Discrimination - the extent to which a response changes to a different stimuli
What is discrimination learning
The ability to produce a different response in the presence of different stimuli
What is the role of motivation in learning, what is an example
Can affect the performance of previously learned responses
Frustration as a result of the omission of reinforcement can paradoxically increase a response (e.g. pressing the button more at traffic lights)
What is drive reduction & the Premack principle
Drive reduction - a form of reinforcement where the strength of a biological drive (e.g hunger, thirst) is reduced, actions that coincide with the reduction of a drive are reinforced (e.g. you seek food when you are hungry, when you eat, both eating and seeking food are reinforced by the reduction of hunger)
Premack principle - more preferable behaviours can be used to reinforce less preferable behaviours (give sufficient freedom to determine which behaviours are most/least preferable)
Explain the difference between habitual vs. goal-directed behaviour
Goal directed behaviour - performing a response in order to receive an outcome
Habitual behaviour - stimuli produces a response, and a motivating outcome reinforces the S-R association (the response is insensitive to changes in motivation for the outcome)
Does punishment involve the delivery of aversive stimuli
Punishment involves the delivery of aversive stimuli
What factors effects the efficacy of punishment
Path dependence - transitioning from a weak to a strong punishent leads to a less effective behaviour change and vice versa
Delay - shorter delay (better temporal contiguity) leads to a more effectvie behaviour change
Punishment schedule - CRF leads to a more effective behaviour change, but PRF will reduce extinction (PREE) when punishment cannot be delivered
Describe omission as a negative punishment
There is a negative contingency between a response and an outcome (i.e performing a response prevents a positive outcome)
Explain the relationship between punishment & fear conditioning
Classical conditioning can be used to associate a conditioned stimulus with fear
Tone (CS) —-> Shock (US)
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Fear (CR) Fear (UR)
E.g. little albert and the white rat, generalised fear onto other stimuli
What is negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement (avoidance) - a response developed/learnt due to earlier aversive stimuli
What is the two-process theory of avoidance
- Classical conditioning - Warning signal (CS) paired with shock (US) -> CS elicits fear
- Instrumental conditioning - Avoidance behaviour (R) leads to a reduction in fear (Rft)
e.g. fear conditioning of a tone associated with an electric shock will result in the subject initially escaping the shock, but later learning to avoid it once the tone is heard
What are safety signlas, explain their role in avoidance
Safety signals - stimuli which signal safety from an aversive outcome (e.g. offset of the warning signal, stimuli associated with escape - doorway)
- Improve the acquisition of avoidance
- Maintain avoidance in the absence of overt fear (with avoidance, there is no more aversive stimuli, so the helps maintain the response)
- Protect warning signals from extinction
What is the issue of the treatment of avoidance behaviours
In order to treat avoidance, the subject must learn that the CS is safe (extinguish CS-fear association), but the subject avoids the CS!
To overcome this, we must enforce exposure to the CS and prevent the avoidance response from occuring
What is the peak shift effect?
Displacement of the peak away from S+ in the direction opposite S-
What is latent learning?
Tolman (rat in maze with/without food experiment)
- learning occurs without reinforcement or motivation (e.g rats learnt to navigate the maze faster even with no food present)
- behaviour changes when there is sufficient motivation
- reinforcement provides an impetus to perform
What are covert factors?
Cognitive, internalised, not measurable factors
What are overt factors?
Directly interacting with the environment, measurable and observable factors
Explain two ways in which outcome devaluation can occur
- Devaluate the outcome by pairing it with an aversive outcome (e.g. poisoning food)
- Devaluating through saturation of the outcome (free-feeding, long exposure)
What are the two variables contributing to behaviour?
- Consequences
- reinforcers/punishments - Antecedents
- triggers of habits
- structure of environment facilitating/preventing a behaviour
- triggers of emotional states that motivate behaviour
What are the 4 factors contributing to the success of token economies (e.g classroom stickers)
- Do not interfere with behaviour
- Not subject to satiety
- Good temporal contiguity
- Universal reinforcers - cater to individual tastes (e.g money)
Two alternatives to punishment
- Extinction
2. Differential reinforcement of other behaviours
What are the 3 factors of the Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985)
- Competency - desire to achieve mastery
- Relatedness - the desire to relate, be connected to or care for others
- Autonomy - universal urge to be causal agents of one’s own life
Explain the 2 impacts of reinforcement on performance and their effects on intrinsic motivation
- Task dependent reward (regardless of quality) - reduces intrinsic motivation
- performance independent (engage in task)
- task-completion dependent (complete task) - Performance dependent reward (quality exceeds some meaningful standard) - increases intrinsic motivation
Describe the matching law and how we can use it to extrapolate
- Behaviour lawfully follows the distribution of reinforcement of that particular behaviour
- States that the relative rate of responses equals (matches) the relative rate of reinforcement for that behaviour
- The history of distribution of reinforcement can be used to predict the distribution of behaviour
What are the 3 reasons delayed rewards lose value?
- Risk of losing reward
- Expected transaction costs
- Concave utility effects
