Learning & Motivation

Question 1

What are the 4 different schedules of partial reinforcement (PRF) and their effect on response rate

Answer 1

Ratio (Rft is based on number of responses) and interval (Rft is based on time) - fixed or variable

Fixed ratio (FR)                    Fixed interval (FI)
Variable ratio (VR)               Variable interval (VI)

Fixed & variable ratio produce the highest rate of response
Fixed interval produces a higher response rate than variable interval, however less than ratio

Question 2

What is extinction and the partial reinforcement extinction effect (PREE), and what are two explainations of this effect

Answer 2

Where the established response tends to decline when the reinforcer is removed (zero contingency between response and reinforcement)

PREE - partial reinforcement is more resistant to extinction compared to continuous reinforcement

motivation - subjects in a PRF schedule become more resilient to frustration due to a weak contiguity, so extinction is slower

discriminative stimuli - CRF is very distinguishable from extinction compared to PRF, so extinction is a more effective discriminative stimulus in CRF leading to more effective extinction

Question 3

What is a discriminative stimuli and some examples

Answer 3

An event/context in the presence of which a response is either reinforced, or not (S+ & S-)

Usually lights, tones etc. but can also be contexts, emotional/physiological states or the passage of time

Question 4

What is Generalisation & Discrimination

Answer 4

Generalisation - the extent to which a response transfers to similar novel stimuli (generalisation gradient, decreases with extremely different stimuli)

Discrimination - the extent to which a response changes to a different stimuli

Question 5

What is discrimination learning

Answer 5

The ability to produce a different response in the presence of different stimuli

Question 6

What is the role of motivation in learning, what is an example

Answer 6

Can affect the performance of previously learned responses

Frustration as a result of the omission of reinforcement can paradoxically increase a response (e.g. pressing the button more at traffic lights)

Question 7

What is drive reduction & the Premack principle

Answer 7

Drive reduction - a form of reinforcement where the strength of a biological drive (e.g hunger, thirst) is reduced, actions that coincide with the reduction of a drive are reinforced (e.g. you seek food when you are hungry, when you eat, both eating and seeking food are reinforced by the reduction of hunger)

Premack principle - more preferable behaviours can be used to reinforce less preferable behaviours (give sufficient freedom to determine which behaviours are most/least preferable)

Question 8

Explain the difference between habitual vs. goal-directed behaviour

Answer 8

Goal directed behaviour - performing a response in order to receive an outcome

Habitual behaviour - stimuli produces a response, and a motivating outcome reinforces the S-R association (the response is insensitive to changes in motivation for the outcome)

Question 9

Does punishment involve the delivery of aversive stimuli

Answer 9

Punishment involves the delivery of aversive stimuli

Question 10

What factors effects the efficacy of punishment

Answer 10

Path dependence - transitioning from a weak to a strong punishent leads to a less effective behaviour change and vice versa

Delay - shorter delay (better temporal contiguity) leads to a more effectvie behaviour change

Punishment schedule - CRF leads to a more effective behaviour change, but PRF will reduce extinction (PREE) when punishment cannot be delivered

Question 11

Describe omission as a negative punishment

Answer 11

There is a negative contingency between a response and an outcome (i.e performing a response prevents a positive outcome)

Question 12

Explain the relationship between punishment & fear conditioning

Answer 12

Classical conditioning can be used to associate a conditioned stimulus with fear

Tone (CS) —-> Shock (US)
| |
Fear (CR) Fear (UR)

E.g. little albert and the white rat, generalised fear onto other stimuli

Question 13

What is negative reinforcement

Answer 13

Negative reinforcement (avoidance) - a response developed/learnt due to earlier aversive stimuli

Question 14

What is the two-process theory of avoidance

Answer 14

1. Classical conditioning - Warning signal (CS) paired with shock (US) -> CS elicits fear
2. Instrumental conditioning - Avoidance behaviour (R) leads to a reduction in fear (Rft)

e.g. fear conditioning of a tone associated with an electric shock will result in the subject initially escaping the shock, but later learning to avoid it once the tone is heard

Question 15

What are safety signlas, explain their role in avoidance

Answer 15

Safety signals - stimuli which signal safety from an aversive outcome (e.g. offset of the warning signal, stimuli associated with escape - doorway)

• Improve the acquisition of avoidance
• Maintain avoidance in the absence of overt fear (with avoidance, there is no more aversive stimuli, so the helps maintain the response)
• Protect warning signals from extinction

Question 16

What is the issue of the treatment of avoidance behaviours

Answer 16

In order to treat avoidance, the subject must learn that the CS is safe (extinguish CS-fear association), but the subject avoids the CS!

To overcome this, we must enforce exposure to the CS and prevent the avoidance response from occuring

Question 17

What is the peak shift effect?

Answer 17

Displacement of the peak away from S+ in the direction opposite S-

Question 18

What is latent learning?

Answer 18

Tolman (rat in maze with/without food experiment)

• learning occurs without reinforcement or motivation (e.g rats learnt to navigate the maze faster even with no food present)
• behaviour changes when there is sufficient motivation
• reinforcement provides an impetus to perform

Question 19

What are covert factors?

Answer 19

Cognitive, internalised, not measurable factors

Question 20

What are overt factors?

Answer 20

Directly interacting with the environment, measurable and observable factors

Question 21

Explain two ways in which outcome devaluation can occur

Answer 21

1. Devaluate the outcome by pairing it with an aversive outcome (e.g. poisoning food)
2. Devaluating through saturation of the outcome (free-feeding, long exposure)

Question 22

What are the two variables contributing to behaviour?

Answer 22

1. Consequences
   - reinforcers/punishments
2. Antecedents
   - triggers of habits
   - structure of environment facilitating/preventing a behaviour
   - triggers of emotional states that motivate behaviour

Question 23

What are the 4 factors contributing to the success of token economies (e.g classroom stickers)

Answer 23

1. Do not interfere with behaviour
2. Not subject to satiety
3. Good temporal contiguity
4. Universal reinforcers - cater to individual tastes (e.g money)

Question 24

Two alternatives to punishment

Answer 24

1. Extinction

2. Differential reinforcement of other behaviours

Question 25

What are the 3 factors of the Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985)

Answer 25

1. Competency - desire to achieve mastery
2. Relatedness - the desire to relate, be connected to or care for others
3. Autonomy - universal urge to be causal agents of one’s own life

Question 26

Explain the 2 impacts of reinforcement on performance and their effects on intrinsic motivation

Answer 26

1. Task dependent reward (regardless of quality) - reduces intrinsic motivation
   - performance independent (engage in task)
   - task-completion dependent (complete task)
2. Performance dependent reward (quality exceeds some meaningful standard) - increases intrinsic motivation

Question 27

Describe the matching law and how we can use it to extrapolate

Answer 27

• Behaviour lawfully follows the distribution of reinforcement of that particular behaviour
• States that the relative rate of responses equals (matches) the relative rate of reinforcement for that behaviour
• The history of distribution of reinforcement can be used to predict the distribution of behaviour

Question 28

What are the 3 reasons delayed rewards lose value?

Answer 28

1. Risk of losing reward
2. Expected transaction costs
3. Concave utility effects