Learning & memory Flashcards
Define Learning
A permanent change in behaviour or knowledge due to an experience
Describe & explain classical conditioning (Pavlov)
CC suggests we learn through associations. Where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response
unconditioned stimulus= unconditioned response.
Describe & explain Operant conditioning (Skinner)
OP suggests we learn through positive & negative reinforcers, we are likely to repeat a behaviour if it has positive consequences (PR) for us & to avoid negative consequences (NR)
Punishment is also involved in OP, it decreases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated. PP is reducing a behaviour e.g., scolding a child by adding an unpleasant action. NP is removing something nice to remove a behaviour, e.g., taking away a toy
What are some factors that affect operant conditioning?
- How often reinforcers are used
- when they are used
- desirability of reward
- value of reinforcer
Describe & explain the stages in observational learning (Bandura, BOBO doll) (SLT)
OL states we learn through observing others and mimicking their behaviors. We choose models to follow, this can occur consciously & subconsciously. there are 4 stages
1. ATTENTION: the learner paying attention to the model, more interesting the behavior we are more likely to pay attention and observe
2. RETENTION: Learner remembers what they saw, it is stored in the memory to be recalled later
3. REPRODUCTION: The learner must have the ability to reproduce the behavior, dependent on physical & intellectual skills
4. MOTIVATION: The learner must be motivated to initiate the behaviour, this can be influenced by rewards or to avoid punishments
Describe & explain the stages of avoidance learning theory
AL is where a person learns to avoid a stimulus.
5 stages:
1. experiences unpleasant stimulus
2. associates fear with stimulus
3. CR made to stimulus induces fear
4. Protective behaviour to reduce fear
5. Behaviour to avoid stimulus
Process is based on NR, where avoidance strengthens this behaviour leading to this becoming a CR. Extreme cases of AL leads to anxiety or phobias.
What are the 2 main components in avoidance learning?
- escape learning: this occurs when the person learns to escape from fear-inducing stimulus by performing a behaviour
- Avoidance learning: Where the person learns to avoid contact with the stimulus altogether by performing the behaviour before the stimulus is present
How does conditioning affect chronic pain behaviours?
People with CP will adapt to reduce pain & discomfort. These behaviours are influenced by CC & OC
CC: people begin to associate an NS with pain, the stimulus may trigger a pain response, and this creates an association producing a CR, a person may associate a hospital with a painful experience they had there.
OC: pain behaviours e.g. seeking rest are reinforced overtime if they reduce discomfort. Repetition of positive reinforcer e.g., asking for help, makes people with CP more likely to repeat the behaviour. This however can lead to dependance on others
They may also actively avoid painful tasks that may be necessary for recovery
CF: learned beliefs may be formed around pain which influence their behaviour e.g., that they can’t function without medication, limits them and become more pain focused. catastrophizing and avoiding are common CF
Problems with conditioning and chronic pain and what can we do to help?
Learning in the context of chronic pain can result in a cycle where pain and related behaviours are reinforced, making it more difficult for individuals to break free from the cycle and regain normal functioning.
Pain management approaches often aim to break this cycle by using strategies like cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) or graded exposure to reduce the impact of learned pain behaviours.
Describe the simple memory model (Atkinson & shriffin)
Describe & explain Baddeley memory model
What are the components of memory
- Process: the ability to retain information from an experience
- Object: a specfic image or experience that can be recalled
- Storage: a part of the brain where information & experiences is predicted to be stored
What factors influence memory?
- Age
- Disease
- Medication
- Health literacy
- arousal when learning information
Describe the influence of anxiety on memory
There is a threshold to the amount of useful anxiety on memory, however too high of anxiety hinders cognitive function
Too low of arousal can make the information seem unimportant and therefore is less likely to be stored in LTM
Describe the influence of short-term & chronic stress on memory
ST: it can enhance memory by release of hormones e.g., cortisol, during times of stress which may help recall of information, so can be beneficial
CS: this can impair memory especially in tasks that need attention and concentration, prolonged exposure to hormones e.g., cortisol, can damage brain structure in the hippocampus which can affect the formation of new memories. Therefore more likely lead to inability to concentrate, retain information, increased forgetfulness.
What are the effects of anxiety on memory
In excess it can impair memory as their mind is preoccupied with fear rather than concentrating on a task, this can interfere with the encoding of the memory in the brain.
More likely to affect working memory, making it difficult to organize thoughts & focus, leading to decreased memory performance. It can impact memory retrieval, people who are scared of underperforming can create a cycle of poor recall, reinforcing anxiety.
Define state-dependant & context memory
State-dependent memory*refers to the phenomenon where people are more likely to recall information when they are in the same mental or physiological state as when they initially learned or encoded the information. For example, if you were in a happy mood when you learned something, you’re more likely to remember it when you’re in a similar happy mood again.
Context-dependent memory refers to the idea that memory retrieval is enhanced when the person is in the same physical environment or context in which they originally learned or encoded the information. For instance, if you studied for a test in a specific room or location, you might perform better when taking the test in that same room or similar surroundings.
Both types of memory highlight how our surroundings or internal states can influence our ability to retrieve information.
What to ensure when delivering information to a patient?
- you are speaking simply & slowly
- that they are paying attention
- chunk the information together
- leave space allowing the patient to process
- summarise the news and the end & check their understanding
- do not overwhelm the patient
Explain the arousal balance
Low arousal: if a patient shows little arousal they may not understand the seriousness of the situation, make sure they are paying attention and taking in the information
High arousal: Patient may have high anxiety, it’s important to address their main concerns, reduce arousal, provide them with as much information as is necessary
A curve is shown to represent this balance, ideally a patient falls in the mid range
How can we enhance memory of patients?
(do’s & don’ts)
DO: find out what the patient knows already, their main concerns, give key message first & last, use simple language to ensure they understand you
Don’t: use too much medical jargon, don’t expect patients to perfectly recall information if they are sick, Don’t assume all patients know what they want or want the same thing
How can we help patients with memory recall?
- use written or visual aids
- encourage bringing a person to an appointment to help with recall
- encourage them to record what is said in the appointment to listen back to later
