Learning (Human Behaviour)

Question 1

Compare and contrast classical conditioning and operant conditioning

Answer 1

Associative learning theories: Classical conditioning & Instrumental or operant conditioning

Classical or Pavlovian

‘A previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus through repeated pairing with that stimulus’ (Op. Cit. p. 227)

• Neutral stimulus = dog food bowl;
• Stimulus = dog food;
• After time, the bowl alone causes salivation

Unconditioned responses (UR) = unlearned response, like a reflex, e.g. salivating

Unconditioned stimulus (US) = A stimulus that automatically elicits a response, e.g. food

(Op. Cit., p.227)

Neutral stimulus (NS) = A stimulus that does not cause the response in question, e.g. light

The NS is paired with the US, e.g. light is switched on when food is present

The food is called the conditioning phase

Conditioned stimulus (CS) = A stimlus that has become associated with a response, e.g. the light

Conditioned response (CR) = A response contingent on conditioned stimulus, e.g. salivating

Classical conditioning in medicine

• unconditioned stimulus: Chemotherapy
• Unconditioned response: nausea
• Conditioned stimulus: ice cream
• Conditioned response: aversion to ice cream

(Bernstein, 1991)

Operant conditioning

Learning to modify voluntary behaviours in light of consequences

e.g. Behaviour = new trick; consequence = treat

Reinforcement = make the behaviour more likely (can be positive or negative)

Positive reinforcement = adding something good

Negative reinforcement = taking away something bad

e.g.
- Pressing a lever provides food
- Pressing a lever stops an unpleasant noise

Punishment = makes the behaviour less likely

Positive punishment = Adding something bad

Negative punishment = Taking away something good

e.g.
- Pressing the leaver causes an unpleasant noise
- Pressing the lever destroys the food

Operant conditioning in medicine

• Positive reinforcement: Smoking makes someone feel good
• Negative reinforcement: Not smoking leads to withdrawal symptoms

Rewards to reinforce behaviours, e.g. stickers after injections

Question 2

Describe the role of imitation and observation in learning

Answer 2

Observation

Learning by observing and imitating others.

‘Social learning theory’ e.g. Bobo doll study (Bandura et al., 1961)

• Vicarious learning
• Enactive learning (see consequences, testing waters to see the response)
• Imitating a role-model

Observational learning requires:

• Attention: Watch the behaviour
• Retention: Remember the behaviour
• Production: Replicate the behaviour
• Motivation: Have the behaviour reinforced

Factors that affect observational learning:

• The observer: Are they attentive? Can they retain the information?
• The model: Are they the sort of person you’d want to imitate?
• The outcomes: Is the behaviour rewarded? or punished?

The role-model is most influential when:

• They have high-status;
• They are reliable and competent;
• They are powerful;
• They are similar

Application to medicine

• Illness behaviour may be learnt behaviours (Levy et al., 2007)
• Imitating the behavious of good doctors
• But careful not to pick up their bad habits (Benbassat, 2014)
• Personal responsibility as doctor to set a good example

Question 3

Describe how different models of learning apply in medical contexts