Learning Approaches

Question 1

Bandura

Answer 1

Albert Bandura developed Social Learning Theory and conducted experiments into observational learning using the Bobo doll. While agreeing that humans could learn through classical and operant conditioning, he also argued that they could learn through observation and imitation.

Question 2

Biological Approach

Answer 2

The biological approach attempts to explain behaviour in terms of different biological processes, including genes, hormones, neurotransmitters, etc. According to the biological approach, the brain and the mind are identical, and brain physiology and biochemical imbalances can affect behaviour. Biological psychologists also believe that behaviour can be inherited, as it is determined by genetic information.

Question 3

Biological Structures

Answer 3

In relation to the biological approach in psychology, biological structures are organs (such as the brain) and systems (such as the nervous system) that influence human behaviour.

Question 4

Classical Conditioning

Answer 4

Classical conditioning is a type of learning discovered by Ivan Pavlov, in which an existing involuntary reflex response is associated with a new stimulus. The new stimulus is presented at the same time as another stimulus that already produces the response. After the two have been presented together a number of times, the new stimulus produces the same response, even in the absence of the original stimulus.

Question 5

Cognitive Approach

Answer 5

The cognitive approach uses experimental research methods to study internal mental processes such as attention, perception, memory and decision-making. Cognitive psychologists assume that the mind actively processes information from our senses (touch, taste etc.) and that between stimulus and response is a series of complex mental processes, which can be studied scientifically. They also assume that humans can be viewed as data processing systems and that the workings of a computer and the human mind are alike – they encode and store information, they have outputs, etc.

Question 6

Comparison of Approaches

Answer 6

Comparison of approaches involves identifying similarities and differences between the different approaches in psychology. They can be compared in terms of criteria such as the different issues and debates (e.g. determinism, reductionism, nature versus nurture).

Question 7

Congruence

Answer 7

Congruence is a term used by Carl Rogers (a humanistic psychologist) to describe a state in which a person’s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar. However, Rogers felt that it was rare for a complete state of congruence to exist and that all people experience a certain amount of incongruence.

Question 8

Counselling Psychology

Answer 8

ounselling psychology focuses on providing therapeutic treatments to clients who experience a wide variety of symptoms, to help people of all ages deal with emotional, social, developmental, and other life concerns. Humanistic psychology has provided several approaches to counselling and therapy. For example, person-centered therapy was developed by Carl Rogers. This is non-directive and the client is encouraged to discover their own solutions within a warm, supportive and non-judgemental environment.

Question 9

Defence Mechanisms

Answer 9

Defence mechanisms are unconscious strategies used by the ego to manage anxiety by redirecting psychic energy. Examples include repression (burying an unpleasant thought or desire in the unconscious) and displacement (where emotions are directed away from their source or target, towards other things).

Question 10

Denial

Answer 10

Denial is a defence mechanism where a threatening thought is ignored or treated as if it were not true. For example, a wife might find evidence that her husband is cheating on her, but dismiss it and provide other reasons / explanation for her husband’s behaviour.

Question 11

Displacement

Answer 11

Displacement is a defense mechanism where emotions are directed away from their source or target, towards something else. For example, a boss gives his employee a hard time at work and the employee goes home and shouts at this wife.

Question 12

Ego

Answer 12

According to Sigmund Freud’s tripartite theory of personality, the ego is the part of personality that acts rationally, balancing the id and the superego. It develops at 2-4 years old and acts according to the ‘reality principle’.

Question 13

Emergence of Cognitive Neuroscience

Answer 13

Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field that studies the influence of brain structures on mental processes. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience occurred due to advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans, which allow scientists to study the neurobiological basis of mental processes like memory.

Question 14

Emergence of Psychology as a Science

Answer 14

The psychology emerged as a science at the beginning of the 20th Century when the early behaviourists began to question the scientific status and value of introspection. John Watson argued that rather than focus on subjective ‘private’ mental processes, psychology should study objective phenomena that could be observed and measured. This was the starting point for both the behaviourist approach and psychology emerging as a scientific discipline.

Question 15

Evolution

Answer 15

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Evolution refers to gradual changes in an inherited characteristic of a species over many generations. Darwin explained this in terms of ‘survival of the fittest’ (i.e. the best adapted to the local environment), meaning that any characteristic or behaviour that increases the chance that an individual will survive and reproduce, would be passed onto future generations.

Question 16

Focus on the Self

Answer 16

Humanistic ideas about behaviour often focus on the self, which is an individual’s consciousness in relation to their own identity. Carl Rogers believed that people could only fulfil their potential for personal growth if they had positive self-regard.

Question 17

Free Will

Answer 17

Humanistic psychologists believe that humans have free will. Humans are able to make their own decisions and are not determined by biological or environmental factors.

Question 18

Freud

Answer 18

Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) was the founding father of psychoanalysis, a method for treating mental illness and also a theory which explains human behavior. Freud believed that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality.

Question 19

Genes

Answer 19

Genes are the biochemical units of heredity that make up chromosomes. Genes are segments of DNA molecules that code physical features (e.g. eye colour) and psychological features (e.g. intelligence).

Question 20

Genetic Basis of Behaviour

Answer 20

The genetic basis of behaviour refers to the idea that genes can be responsible for behaviour (e.g. attachment), as well as for physical characteristics (e.g. eye colour). The genotype refers to the inherited genetic materials, whereas the phenotype is the expression of a person’s genotype, produced by interaction of the genotype and the environment.

Question 21

Genotype

Answer 21

The genotype is a person’s unique genetic make-up that is coded in their chromosomes and fixed at conception. However, the expression of a genotype is influenced by environmental factors and becomes a person’s phenotype.

Question 22

Humanistic Psychology

Answer 22

Humanistic psychology is an approach that emphasises the study of the whole person and sees people as being active in their own development. It is a person-centred approach, which views every individual as unique and regards personal growth and fulfilment in life as a basic human motive.

Question 23

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Answer 23

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a theory of human motivation. The needs are presented in a five-level sequence, where basic needs (e.g. for food and shelter) have to be met before higher psychological needs (e.g. for esteem and self-actualisation).

Question 24

Id

Answer 24

According to Sigmund Freud’s tripartite theory of personality, the id is the part of personality that exists from birth and drives us. According to Freud, the id acts according to the ‘pleasure principle’.

Question 25

Identification: SLT

Answer 25

Identification involves internalising and adopting behaviours shown by a role model, because they have a quality the individual would like to possess. For example, they might be attractive or of high status.

Question 26

Imitation

Answer 26

Imitation is a term used by social learning theorists to describe the way in which an individual copies the behaviour of a role model.

Question 27

Inferences

Answer 27

Inferences are conclusions reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning. Cognitive psychologists use computer models to draw conclusions (make inferences) regarding mental processes.

Question 28

Internal Mental Processes

Answer 28

According to the Cognitive Approach, internal mental processes are operations that occur in the mind, but can be studied scientifically. They are also known as mediational processes because they occur between the stimulus and the response. Examples include memory, attention and perception.

Question 29

Introspection

Answer 29

Introspection refers to observing and examining your own conscious thoughts and emotions. Wundt first used this method in the earliest psychology laboratory, set up in Germany in 1879,

Question 30

Mediational Processes

Answer 30

Mediational processes are mental (cognitive) factors that intervene in the learning process to determine whether a new behaviour is acquired or not. The four mediational processes proposed by Bandura are attention (whether we notice the behaviour); retention (whether we remember the behaviour); reproduction (whether we are able to perform the behaviour); and motivation (whether the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs).

Question 31

Modelling: SLT

Answer 31

Modelling is a process that occurs during Social Learning. Modelling can occur when an observer imitates a role model, or when a person produces a specific behaviour (acting as a model) that may then be imitated

Question 32

Neurochemistry

Answer 32

Neurochemistry in the context of the biological approach refers to the chemical processes occurring in the nervous system. For example, the actions of neurotransmitters within the brain.

Question 33

Operant Conditioning

Answer 33

Operant conditioning is a type of learning investigated by Skinner, in which a new voluntary behaviour is associated with a consequence. Reinforcement (positive or negative) makes the behaviour more likely to occur, whereas punishment makes it less likely to occur.

Question 34

Pavlov

Answer 34

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian biologist who first demonstrated classical conditioning. He was able to show that dogs could learn to salivate to a bell or a buzzer, if it was paired with food.

Question 35

Phenotype

Answer 35

The phenotype is the expression of a person’s genetic make-up (genotype) that can be influenced by the environment.

Question 36

Psychodynamic Approach

Answer 36

The psychodynamic approach is often associated with Sigmund Freud, who theorised that our mental activity is mostly unconscious, and that this unconscious activity shapes our behaviour. He explained that traumatic childhood experiences can lead to psychological disorders, and developed ‘talking cures’ (psychoanalysis, more generally termed psychotherapy) to help release problematic repressed memories and relieve symptoms.

Question 37

Psychosexual Stages

Answer 37

Freud believed that humans progress through ‘psychosexual stages’, during the development of the psyche. He named five stages, each with a particular characteristic behaviour: oral behaviour (0-18 months); anal – holding or discarding faeces (18 months – 3.5 years); phallic – fixation on genitals (3.5 – 6 years); latency – repressed sexual urges (6 years - puberty); and genital – awakened sexual urges (puberty onwards). Freud claimed that, during development, a child could become fixated on one of these stages, which could lead to specific psychological disorders.

Question 38

Reinforcement: SLT

Answer 38

According to Social Learning Theory, reinforcement can be direct or indirect. Direct reinforcement occurs when you perform a certain behaviour and are rewarded (positive reinforcement), or it leads to the removal or avoidance of something unpleasant (negative reinforcement). Indirect reinforcement occurs when you observe someone else perform a certain behaviour and receive either positive or negative reinforcement.

Question 39

Repression

Answer 39

Repression is a defence mechanism, which involves burying an unpleasant thought or desire in the unconscious (e.g. traumatic childhood experiences may be repressed and so forgotten).

Question 40

Role of Conditions of Worth

Answer 40

Humanistic psychologists focus on the role of conditions of worth in explaining behaviour. People very often believe that they will only be loved and valued if they meet certain conditions of worth (e.g. being good, passing exams). These conditions of worth can create incongruity between the real self (how the person is) and the ideal self (how they think they should be). The person is motivated to close the gap between the real and ideal self but may do this in ways that make them unhappy. For example, they may choose a career or university course to make their parents happy.

Question 41

Schemas

Answer 41

Schemas are cognitive frameworks that help us to organise and interpret information. They are developed through experience and can affect our cognitive processing.

In terms of cognition & development, Piaget viewed schemas as the basic unit or building block of intelligent behavior. He described them as mental structures that help to organise past experiences and provide a way of understanding future experiences. For Piaget, a schema can be a physical action or skill, an idea, or a piece of knowledge.

Question 42

Skinner

Answer 42

Skinner developed the theory of Operant Conditioning and first introduced the term ‘reinforcement’ to explain how the consequences of a particular behaviour can make future behaviours more or less likely.

Question 43

Social Learning Theory: Approaches

Answer 43

The social learning theory is concerned with how people learn when they observe and imitate others. It can be seen as a bridge between the Behaviourist Approach and the Cognitive Approach as like the Behaviourist Approach, it emphasises the importance of environment and reinforcement in learning. However, like the Cognitive Approach, it acknowledges the important role that internal mental processes play in interpreting the environment and planning new actions.

Question 44

Superego

Answer 44

According to Sigmund Freud’s tripartite theory of personality, the superego is the part of personality concerned with keeping to moral norms. It develops around 4-5 years old and acts according to the ‘morality principle’, attempting to control a powerful id with feelings of guilt.

Question 45

Theoretical & Computer Models

Answer 45

Theoretical and computer models are used by cognitive psychologists to study mental processes. Theoretical models are diagrammatic representations of the steps involved in internal mental processes, e.g. the information-processing model. Computer models are software simulations of internal mental processes that are created in collaboration with computer scientists.

Question 46

Unconscious

Answer 46

The unconscious mind consists of mental processes that are inaccessible to consciousness but still influence us. Freud believed that the unconscious mind was the primary source of human behaviour and stated that like an iceberg, the most important part of the mind is the part you cannot see (beneath the surface of the water/consciousness).

Question 47

Vicarious Reinforcement

Answer 47

Vicarious reinforcement occurs when learners observe role models receiving either positive or negative reinforcement. This means that because the learner has observed the consequences of the behaviour they are more (or less) likely to imitate it, depending on what those consequences were.

Question 48

Wundt

Answer 48

William Wundt opened the first psychology laboratory in Germany in 1879 and used it to study the human mind, using a technique known as introspection.