LEARNING AND SOCIAL COGNITION

Question 1

Define learning

Answer 1

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience. It involves the acquisition of new information or skills and the modification of existing behaviors based on environmental interactions.

Question 2

Classical conditioning

Answer 2

Classical conditioning is a learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, resulting in a learned response. It was famously demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov in his experiments with dogs, where he paired a neutral stimulus (a bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (food) to produce a conditioned response (salivation).

Question 3

Definitions of key terms

Answer 3

Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning (e.g., food).
Unconditioned Response (UR): The natural, unlearned reaction to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to food).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, acquires the ability to evoke a conditioned response (e.g., the bell after conditioning).
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to the bell).

Question 4

Classical conditioning and crim behaviour

Answer 4

Classical conditioning can contribute to criminal behavior by creating associations between certain stimuli and emotional responses. For example, if a person experiences a traumatic event in a specific environment, that environment may later evoke fear or aggression, potentially leading to criminal acts in similar contexts.

Question 5

Define stimulus generalization

Answer 5

Stimulus generalization occurs when an organism responds to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to the conditioned stimulus. For example, a person conditioned to respond to a bell may also react to similar sounds.

Question 6

Conditionality

Answer 6

Conditionability refers to the ease or difficulty with which a particular stimulus can be conditioned to elicit a response. Some stimuli are more readily associated with responses than others due to biological predispositions or contextual factors.

Question 7

Operant conditioning

Answer 7

Operant conditioning is a learning process in which behavior is modified by its consequences. Behaviors followed by reinforcement tend to be strengthened, while those followed by punishment tend to be weakened. B.F. Skinner is known for his work in this area.

Question 8

Definitions of key terms

Answer 8

Discriminative Stimulus: A stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement for a specific behavior.
Reinforcement: Any consequence that strengthens a behavior.
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., giving a reward).
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., stopping a loud noise when a desired behavior occurs).

Question 9

More key terms

Answer 9

Extinction: The process through which a previously reinforced behavior is weakened when reinforcement is no longer provided.
Reinforcement Schedules: The rules determining how and when reinforcement is delivered.
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.
Intermittent Reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time, which can lead to more persistent behaviors.

Question 10

Punishment

Answer 10

Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior (e.g., giving a reprimand).
Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior (e.g., taking away privileges).

Question 11

Operant conditioning and criminal behaviour

Answer 11

Operant conditioning can contribute to criminal behavior through reinforcement of antisocial actions. If a criminal behavior is reinforced (e.g., gaining money or status), it is more likely to be repeated. Similarly, if negative behaviors are not punished adequately, they may continue.

Question 12

Non social reinforcement and differential reinforcement

Answer 12

Non-Social Reinforcement: Reinforcement that is not derived from social interactions, such as food or money.
Differential Reinforcement: Reinforcing only the desired behavior while ignoring or punishing undesired behaviors.

Question 13

Why punishment in the crim justice system fails

Answer 13

Punishment in the criminal justice system often fails because it may not be applied consistently, may lack immediacy, or may not effectively deter individuals from future offending. Additionally, the absence of positive reinforcement for prosocial behavior can lead to a continuation of criminal activity.

Question 14

Observational learning and models

Answer 14

Observational learning is a process by which individuals learn by watching others and imitating their behavior. Models are individuals or entities that serve as examples for others to observe and learn from.

Question 15

Keyyy terms

Answer 15

Acquisition: The initial stage of learning when a response is first established.
Imitation: The act of copying or mimicking another’s behavior.
Direct Reinforcement: Receiving reinforcement for a behavior that one has performed.
Vicarious Reinforcement: Learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement of another’s behavior.

Question 16

Observational learning and criminal behaviour

Answer 16

Observational learning can contribute to criminal behavior when individuals, especially children, observe and imitate antisocial behaviors modeled by others, such as peers, family members, or media figures. This can normalize violence or criminality.

Question 17

Relationship between violent media and aggression

Answer 17

Research indicates that exposure to violent media can lead to increased aggression and desensitization to violence. Viewers may become more likely to imitate violent behaviors or view aggression as acceptable in certain situations.

Question 18

Social learning, differential association, modalities of association

Answer 18

Social Learning: A theory that posits behavior is learned through observing others and through the consequences of those behaviors.
Differential Association: A theory by Edwin Sutherland suggesting that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others who promote criminal norms.
Modalities of Association: The different ways in which individuals associate with others in learning behaviors.

Question 19

Sutherland principles of definitions

Answer 19

Positive Definitions: Definitions that promote criminal behavior (e.g., justifying theft).
Negative Definitions: Definitions that discourage criminal behavior (e.g., laws against theft).
Neutralizing Definitions: Justifications or rationalizations that allow individuals to engage in criminal behavior without feeling guilty (e.g., “everyone does it”).

Question 20

Social reinforcement

Answer 20

Social reinforcement refers to reinforcement that comes from social interactions and relationships, such as praise, approval, or attention from others, which can strengthen desired behaviors.