Learning and Memory Flashcards
Cognition
Cognitive states such as motivation, learning and memory were once considered in the realm of psychology rather than physiology
However, cellular events that influence plasticity underlie these cognitive functions
Changes in neuronal connections as a response to experiences is fundamental to learning and memory
Learning definition
the acquisition of knowledge about our environment.
Any relative permanent change in behaviour brought about by past experience.
Memory definition
the process by which that knowledge is encoded, stored and later retrieved.
Associative learning
Forming new association between two events
Includes classical and operant learning
Cognitive (non-associative) learning
Interpretation of present information in light of past experience
Includes habituation and sensitisation
Pavlov,classical conditioning
learning a simple behavioural response in the presence of a given stimulus.
concerned with reflex behaviour: an unconditional stimulus (US) eg. food leads to an unconditioned response (salivation)
If a novel stimulus (eg. light/bell) is paired with the US, the novel stimulus alone soon elicits the response ie. it becomes a conditioned stimulus and the response becomes a conditioned response
Steps in classical conditioning
Neutral stimulus (NS) has no effect on the subject Unconditioned stimulus (US) elicits an unconditioned response (UR)
NS is paired repeatedly with
the US; UR occurs
NS is presented alone, UR occurs
Neutral stimulus is now the conditioned stimulus (CS)
Associative learning-operant conditioning
Skinner, 1938
Operant conditioning increases the likelihood of a response by following its occurrence with a reinforcer
Involves a voluntary response (behaviour), with which an organism ‘operates’ on its environment;
Initially happens by chance, consequences determine likelihood of doing it again.
Classical conditioning
organism is passive, simply responds to stimuli
operant conditioning
organism is active, own behaviour brings on reinforcement (e.g. foot pedal causes food to be released).
reinforcement
Any event which increases the likelihood of a response
May be positive (reward training) or negative (escape/avoidance training- not punishment)
Primary reinforcer: satisfies a basic drive e.g. food, pain avoidance
Secondary reinforcer: conditioned e.g. money
Structural changes in learning
In humans, disruption of brain activity within 10 minutes of learning abolishes the memory, but if greater than 1 hour, it does not.
Structural changes do occur during learning
e.g. rats reared in a visually enriched environment have much thicker visual cortices
Disuse atrophy of neurons occurs.
Inhibition of protein synthesis within 30 minutes of learning disrupts learning.
Habituation-cognitive learning
repeated exposure to a stimulus results in reduced responding to that stimulus
generally neutral, non-noxious stimuli
Sensitisation
repeated exposure to a stimulus results in increased responding to that stimulus
generally biologically relevant
also refers to augmentation of responding following exposure to a second stimulus
Research on neural mechanism has focused on non-associative learning and classical conditioning.
Eric Kandel and his collaborators used Aplysia to unravel synaptic mechanisms for
Short- and long-term habituation
Short- and long-term sensitization
Classical conditioning.
Eric Kandel won the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine 2000 for this work.
Gill withdrawal reflex in Aplysia Californica
The gill is used for breathing
The gill can be covered with the mantle shelf
Waste and seawater are released through the siphon
The gill-withdrawal reflex occurs when touching the siphon produces a retraction of the gill
Mechanism for habituation:
↑ K+ conductance → hyperpolarisation → ↓Ca2+ influx → ↓NT release
Mechanism for sensitisation:
5-HT → ↑cAMP → ↓K+ conductance → prolonged depolarisation → ↑ Ca2+ influx → ↑ NT release
Habituation in aplysia
short term and long term aplysia-refer to notes
Sensitisation in aplysia
Kandel termed the neural mechanisms that underlie behavioural sensitisation,
“heterosynaptic facilitation,” which is produced by a second (usually stronger) stimulus
Memory
Refers to the processes of
Acquiring information
Storing it in the brain
Subsequent retrieval and use
Declarative (explicit)
conscious, expressed by language
Episodic – associated with a time
Semantic – factual knowledge
non-declarative (implicit)
a memory recalled unconsciously
Procedural or skill learning
Priming: resistant to brain injury, aging and dementia
Conditioning
Acquisition and storage of declarative information
Short term storage (hippocampus and related structures)->
long term storage ( a variety of cortical sites: Wernickes area for the meaning of words, temporal cortex for the memories of objects and faces etc,