Learning and Memory

Question 1

Who is the philosopher who argued that memory depended on the formation of “linkage” or “associations” between pairs of events, sensations or ideas, so that recalling or experiencing one member of the pair elicits a memory.

Answer 1

Aristotle

Question 2

Who was the philosopher and later theorist who focus on empiricism( Which holds that all ideas we have are the result of experience)

Answer 2

Aristotle and later John Locke

Question 3

Who were the philosophers and theorists who supported Nativism (A philosophical school of thought that holds that the bulk of knowledge is inborn (or native)

Answer 3

Immanual Kant, later Jerry Fodor, Noam Chomsky and Steven Pinker

Question 4

Who was the philsopher who founded the theory of dualism? what is Dualism?

Answer 4

Descartes founded Dualism which is a theory which adapts the principle that the mind and body exist as separate entities, each with different characteristics and governed by its own law

Question 5

What did Hermann Ebbinghaus do to contribute to the research and theories on memory.

Answer 5

Hermann Ebbinghaus was the first to conduct rigorous experimental studies on human memory. Ebbinghaus also created the retention curve which was used to indicate the loss of memory over time.

Question 6

What theory and experiment did Ivan Pavlov create?

Answer 6

Ivan Pavlov was the founder for classical conditioning which is type of learning whereby an organism learns to respond with a conditioned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has been repeatedly presented along with an unconditioned response. Pavlov was able to prove this through the use of dogs and utilisation of the presence of food to make the dogs salivate.

Question 7

What is generalisation?

Answer 7

Generalisation is the transfer of past learning to novel events and problems.

Question 8

What is extinction in the context of classical conditioning?

Answer 8

Extinction is the process of reducing a learned response to a stimulus by ceasing to par that stimulus with a reward or punishment.

Question 9

What theory did Edward Thorndike create? and explain this theory.

Answer 9

Edward Thorndike was the founder of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is believed to be the process whereby organisms learn to make responses in order to obtain or avoid important consequences. Thorndike explained this as being instrumental learning.

Question 10

What is the Law of Effect?

Answer 10

The law of effect was an observation made by Edward Thorndike that the probability of a particular behavioural response increases or decreases depending on the consequences that have followed that response in the past.

Question 11

What is Behaviourism and who founded this theory?

Answer 11

Behaviourism was founded by John Watson and is a school of thought that argues that psychology should restrict itself to a study of observable behaviours and not seek to infer unobservable mental processes.

Question 12

What was the work done by Clark-Hull?

Answer 12

Clark-Hull created mathematical models of learning which used equations to interpret conditioning models.

Question 13

Who created radical behaviourism and what does it entail?

Answer 13

Radical Behaviourism was founded by B.F Skinner. It is a extreme form of behaviourism, holding that consciousness and free will are illusions and that even so called higher cognitive functions are merely complex sets of stimulus response escalations.

Question 14

Who founded Neo-Behaviourism and created cognitive maps?

Answer 14

Edward Tolman was the founder and creater or neo-behaviourism and cognitive map.s Tolman believed that learning was lateral in that is is undetected and that it could not be explained simply through observations.

Question 15

Who extended on Hull’S Mathematical model?

Answer 15

W.K Estes built on Hull’s mathematical model by using this method to indicate that a single stimulus is a collection of multiple possible elements where each of these have a small sample feature or component.

Question 16

Who was the founder of Information Theory? what does it entail?

Answer 16

George Miller founded the Information theory. This theory is a mathematical theory of communication that provides a precise measure of how much information is contained based not on just the message itself but also on the listeners prior knowledge.

Question 17

Who was the founder of the connectionist model and what does the model entail?

Answer 17

The connectionist model was founded by David Rumelhart. The model entails networks of uniform and unlabelled connections between simple processing unit called nodes.

Question 18

Who created the Associationism model and what does the model entail?

Answer 18

William James created the Associationism model. It is a memory model which regards simple association or co-occurence of ideas or sensations as the primary basis of meaning, thought and learning.

Question 19

Who is H.G Mollison, and what occured in this study?

Answer 19

H.G Mollison (H M) had suffered severe amnesia caused from extensive damage to his medial temporal lobes. The study of H M’s Brain had shown what the implications of this damage was and that the result was that he could not transfer between working memory to long term.

Question 20

What occurs when you retrieve more cues for your memory?

Answer 20

This results in a better recall rate

Question 21

What is Episodic Memory?

Answer 21

Episodic Memory for specific autobiographical events such as information about the spatial and temporal contexts in which the event occured.

Question 22

What is Semantic Memory?

Answer 22

Semantic Memory is memory for facts or general knowledge about the world; including personal information.

Question 23

What are the differences and similarities between semantic and episodic memory?

Answer 23

Both types of memory are declarative and explicit however episodic memories are very specific and semantic are always factual.

Question 24

What is Non-Declarative Memory?

Answer 24

Non-Declarative Memory is a broad class of memory that includes skill memory and other types of learning.

Question 25

What is the Transfer-Appropriate Processing Effect?

Answer 25

Transfer-Appropriate Processing Effect occurs when memory retrieval is best when the cues available at testing similar to those available at encoding.

Question 26

What is Metamemory?

Answer 26

Metamemory is the knowledge of and the ability to think about our own memories including both feeling and knowing and judgement of.

Question 27

What are the core brain structures involved in Memory retrieval

Answer 27

1. Sensory cortex which processes sensory information
2. Association cortex which associates information across the sensory modalities.
3. Medial Temporal lobe: including the hippocampus ( memory formation),
4. Frontal Cortex: determines which memories are store and in producing metamemory of that information.
5. Basal Forebrain: important in the production of acetylcholine which a chemical neurotransmitter which sends signals to neurons such as motor neurons and the parasympathetic system.
6. Diecephalon: connects to the thalamus and the hypothalamus.
7. Formix: fibre bundles that connect portions of the diencephalon and basal forebarin to the hippocampus.

Question 28

What is the difference between anterograde and retrograde amnesia?

Answer 28

Anterograde amnesia is the loss of the ability to form new memories where as retrograde is the loss of memory prior to injury.

Question 29

What is the standard consolidation theory?

Answer 29

proposes that autobiographical memory traces are transferred over time, via ‘systems consolidation,’ into neocortical locations in which they become independent of the hippocampi.

Question 30

What is the Multiple Trace Theory?

Answer 30

The Multiple Trace Theory entails that episodic memories are encoded by an ensemble of hippocampal and cortical neurons and that both hippocampus and cortex are normally involved in storing and retrieving even old memories.

Question 31

What can impact memory retention?

Answer 31

1. Interference: reduction in the strength of a memory due to the overlap with the content of other memories
   + Proactive: disruption of new learning by previously shared information
   + Retroactive: disruption of old information by new learning
   + Consolidation Period: is a length of time which new episodic and semantic memories are vulnerable and easily lost or altered.

Question 32

What are the basic characteristics of Memory?

Answer 32

1. Temporal Duration
2. Characteristics of and mechanisms of learning
3. Characteristics of and mechanisms of forgetting
4. Type of “Code” associated with memory
5. flexibility
6. experimental evidence
7. neuropsychological evidence

Question 33

What is the Working Memory?

Answer 33

Working Memory is where the active maintenance and manipulation of short term memory.

Question 34

What is entailed in Baddeley’s model of working memory?

Answer 34

is a model of human memory proposed by Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch in 1974, in an attempt to present a more accurate model of primary memory (often referred to as short-term memory). Working memory splits primary memory into multiple components, rather than considering it to be a single, unified construct.
This model comprises of the following contructs:
1. the central executive which acts as a supervisory system and controls the flow of information from and to its slave systems
2. the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. The phonological loop stores verbal content
3. visuo-spatial sketchpad caters to visuo-spatial data. 4.the episodic buffer: a limited-capacity system that provides temporary storage of information by conjoining information from the subsidiary systems, and long-term memory, into a single episodic representation

Question 35

What are the three main types of memory?

Answer 35

1. Sensory: brief, transient sensations of what has just been perceived and is the initial temporary storage of for information perceived by the visual system.
2. Short term: temporary memory maintained through active rehearsal
3. Long Term: permanent or near permanent storage of memory that lasts beyond conscious attention

Question 36

What is Cognitive Control?

Answer 36

Cognitive control(Executive Control) is the manipulation and application of working memory for planning , task switching, attention, stimulus selection and the inhibition of inappropriate reflexive behaviour.

Question 37

What are Transient Memories?

Answer 37

Transient Memories are short lasting mental representations.

Question 38

What is the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model?

Answer 38

The Atkinson–Shiffrin model (also known as the multi-store model or modal model) is a model of memory proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin. The model asserts that human memory has three separate components:

a sensory register, where sensory information enters memory,
a short-term store, also called working memory or short-term memory, which receives and holds input from both the sensory register and the long-term store, and
a long-term store, where information which has been rehearsed in the short-term store is held indefinitely.

Question 39

What are the componants of the prefrontal cortex which assist in memory functions?

Answer 39

The prefrontal cortex is essential for working memory and executive control. It includes the orbital cortex, medial and lateral cortex. The lateral cortex also have sub cortices which includes the dorsolateral and ventrolateral which supports encoding and retrieval of memories.

Question 40

What are implicit memories?

Answer 40

is sometimes referred to as unconscious memory or automatic memory. Implicit memory uses past experiences to remember things without thinking about them.

Question 41

What are explicit memories?

Answer 41

also referred to as declarative memory, is conscious long-term memory that is easily and intentionally recalled and recited. It stands in contrast to implicit memory, which is an indirect, unconscious form of memory.

Question 42

What is the difference between implicit and explicit learning?

Answer 42

Explicit learning is the process that includes the ability to verbalize about the actions or events being learned. Implicit learning occurs without the learner’s awareness of improvements in performance.

Question 43

What is listed in Fitt’s Model of Skill Learning?

Answer 43

1. Cognitive stage: some effort exerted to encode that skill on the basis on information gained through observation etc
2. Associative stage: begin using steretyped actions when performing a skill and rely less actively on recalled memories of rules
3. Autonomous stage: skills or subcomponents of skill becomes motor programs

Question 44

What is Cognitive Economy?

Answer 44

Cognitive Economy is achieved by dividing the world classes of things to decrease the amount of information we must learn, perceive , remember and recognise.

Question 45

What is Transfer Specificity?

Answer 45

The restricted applicability of learned skills to specific situations.

Question 46

What is Identical Elements Theory?

Answer 46

Thorndike’s proposal that learned abilities transfer to novel situations to an extent that depends on the number of elements in the new situation that are identical to those in the situation in which the skills are encoded.

Question 47

What is the role of the Basal Ganglia?

Answer 47

Is the collection of Ganglia or clusters of neurons which receive a large number of inputs from cortical neurons. It particularly has control of the velocity, direction and amplitude of movements as we prepare to move.

Question 48

What is source monitoring error?

Answer 48

This occurs when you remember information but being mistaken about the specific episode that is the source of that memory.

Question 49

What are the three types of simple learning?

Answer 49

1. Habituation : decreasing responses to a frequent but innocuous stimulus.
2. Sensitization: increasing response to a noxious/arousing stimuli
3. Perceptual Learning:becoming better at processing/recognizing a frequent stimulus.

Question 50

What is Dishabituation?

Answer 50

Dishabituation occurs when if after repeated presentations of a stimulus occurs(leading to habituation) a new stimulus is presented, then the old stimulus is presented, there may be an increased response to the old stimulus.

Question 51

What is Dual Process Theory in the context of learning?

Answer 51

The Dual Process Theory indicates that habituation and sensitization are independent of each other but operate in parallel.

Question 52

What is Opponent Process Theory in the context of learning?

Answer 52

Opponent Process Theory assumes that an experienced event leads to two independent processes- in this case two emotional processes. One that is pleasant and one that is not.

Question 53

What is synaptic depression?

Answer 53

Synaptic depression occurs when there is a reduction in synaptic transmission; a possible neural mechanism underlying habituation.

Question 54

What is Classical Conditioning?

Answer 54

Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response which, at first, is elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.

Question 55

What is an unconditioned stimulus?

Answer 55

a cue that has some biological significance and in the absence or prior training naturally evokes a response.

Question 56

What is a unconditioned response?

Answer 56

The naturally occuring response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Question 57

What is a Conditioned Stimulus?

Answer 57

A cue that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and comes to elicit a conditioned response.

Question 58

What is Appetitive conditioning?

Answer 58

This conditioning in which the unconditioned stimulus is a positive event.

Question 59

What is Aversive conditioning?

Answer 59

This is conditioning in which the unconditioned stimulus is a negative event.

Question 60

What is compound conditioning?

Answer 60

Conditioning which occurs simultaneously of two cues, usually presented at the same time.

Question 61

What is the Rescorla-Wagner Model?

Answer 61

The Rescorla-Wagner model states that the amount of change which occurs in association between the conditioned stimulus and a unconditioned stimulus depends on a prediction error. If a positive error occurs this will increase association and the unconditioned stimulus occur unexpectedly and strong. When there is no error nothing occurs. When there is a negative error the conditioned stimulus predicts the unconditioned stimulus and so there is a decrease in association.

Question 62

What is Operant Conditioning?

Answer 62

Operant Conditioning is the process whereby organisms learn to make or refrain from making certain responses in order to obtain or avoid certain outcomes.

Question 63

What is a discriminative stimulus?

Answer 63

a stimulus that signals whether a particular response will lead to a particular outcome.

Question 64

What is Drive Reduction Theory?

Answer 64

The theory that organisms have innate drives to obtain primary reinforcers and that learning is driven by the biological need to reduce those drives.

Question 65

What is a primary and secondary reinforcer?

Answer 65

Primary reinforcers regard basic needs such as water, food , sex or sleep that have a biological value to the organism to function as a reinforcer. A secondary reinforcer has no intrinsic biological value but is paired with primary reinforcers or provides access to these.

Question 66

What are the reinforcement schedules?

Answer 66

1. Fixed Ratio: a specific number of responses are required before a reinforcer is delivered
2. Fixed Interval: the first response after a fixed amount of time is reinforced.
3. Variable Ratio: a certain number of responses, on average is reinforced.
4. Variable Interval: the first response after a certain amount of time is reinforced.

Question 67

What is the Premack Principle?

Answer 67

The Premack Principle is a theory that the opportunity to perform a highly frequent behaviour can reinforce a less frequent behaviour, later refined as the response deprivation hypothesis.

Question 68

What is the Response Deprivation Hypothesis?

Answer 68

This a hypothesis which is refined from Premacks principle stating that the opportunity to perform any behaviour can be reinforcing if access to that behaviour is restricted.

Question 69

What is Generalization?

Answer 69

Generalization is the transfer of past learning to new situations and problems

Question 70

What is discrimination learning?

Answer 70

The process by which we animals or people learn to respond differently to different stimuli.

Question 71

What is Formation?

Answer 71

The process by which we learn about new categories of entities in the world, usually based on common features.

Question 72

What are the five basic emotions (The Big 5)?

Answer 72

Happy, sad, fear, disgust , suprise.

Question 73

What did John Mayer create?

Answer 73

John Mayer created the brief mood introspection scale..

Question 74

What is emotion believed to be made of?

Answer 74

a cluster of interrelated phenomena, physiological responses, overt behaviours and conscious feelings.

Question 75

What is the fight, flight or freeze response an example of? Explain the physiological changes which occur.

Answer 75

This is a automatic response which occurs which occurs in the autonomic nervous system, it results in responses without conscious control, heightened blood pressure, heart rate, respiration, sweat etc. Once the sense of threat as cleared, the autonomic nervous system turns this response off.

Question 76

What is the Cognitive Expectancy Theory?

Answer 76

Cognitive Expectancy Theory is an alternative theory that animals form cognitive expectancies and decide between competing possible behaviours based on these expectancies.

Question 77

What is Learned Helplessness?

Answer 77

A phenomenon in which exposure to an uncontrollable punisher teaches an expectation that responses are ineffectual, which in turn, reduces the motivation to attempt new avoidance responses.

Question 78

What is the Affective Primacy Hypothesis?

Answer 78

The affective primary hypothesis is the result of the James-Lange Theory which proposes that emotions start with physiological responses, which are then perceived by the central nervous system to create conscious emotional feelings.

Question 79

What was the argument made by Zajonc in regards to the affective primacy hypothesis?

Answer 79

Zajonc argued that we make judgements about people/objects with little to no information to make cognitive judgments therefore it must be pre-cognitive.

Question 80

What is the Cannon-Bard Theory?

Answer 80

The Cannon-Bard Theory proposes that physiological and conscious components of emotion are independent.

Question 81

What is the two factor theory in relation to emotions and the influence on learning and memory?

Answer 81

This theories synthesizes prior approaches suggesting that arousal and context are interpreted by the central nervous system to generate conscious feelings. This was developed by Stanley Schacter and Jerome Singer.

Question 82

What is the appraisal theory in relation to emotions and the influence on learning and memory?

Answer 82

Lazarus proposed this as an alternative theory to the affective primacy hypothesis. This theory suggests that cognitive appraisal is essential in the experience of emotion.

Question 83

What is Bower’s Network Theory of Affect?

Answer 83

This Theory entails that emotion is represented in nodes in a network. These nodes connect to related semantic items, emotion, behaviours and autonomic response. These nodes can be activated internally and externally.

Question 84

What is the Affect Infusion Model?

Answer 84

This is another model by Bower which states that cognitive processes such as learning and memory are selectively influences by affect state and affective information.

Question 85

What are flash bulb memories?

Answer 85

Flashbulb memories are produced by very important, dramatic and suprising public or personal events. This term was coined by Brown and Kulik in 1977.

Question 86

What is the self reference effect?

Answer 86

The self reference effect is when information about one self is remembered better than information of a more impersonal kind relating to effective self schema.

Question 87

What occurs to the memory of older adults?

Answer 87

Older adults can complete simple storage tasks, but the manipulation of the information becomes more difficult, more complex tasks in the long term become difficult as well as explicit memory slowly decreases.

Question 88

What sort of learning and memory occurs at a prenatal level?

Answer 88

Conditioning and skill learning where the frontal lobes are critical in this occurance.

Question 89

What sort of learning and memory occurs at infancy and early childhood?

Answer 89

Episodic and semantic memories begin to form with the role of the hippocampus becoming more in use.

Question 90

What sort of learning and memory occurs at childhood?

Answer 90

Sensory processing and habituation with a strong use of the sensory cortex.

Question 91

What sort of learning and memory occurs at late childhood to early adolescence?

Answer 91

Social learning and imitation, with the use of mirror neurons in the motor cortex.

Question 92

What sort of learning and memory occurs in late adolescence and young adulthood?

Answer 92

the working memory and executive function with the use of the cerebellum and basal ganglia.

Question 93

What is infantile amnesia?

Answer 93

This evidences that children can store and recall in the long term memory however children under 2 do not have a well organised sense of who they are and so storing and retrieving memories of themselves is difficult.