Learning And Memory

Question 1

Define memory

Answer 1

Memory is the ability to store, retain and recall information we have gained through learning

Question 2

What is learning?

Answer 2

Learning is the the process by which we acquire information from the world around us e.g. Acquisition of new skills

Question 3

Broadly, what are the two types of memory?

Answer 3

Declarative (conscious)
Non declarative (non conscious)

Question 4

What are types of declarative memory?

Answer 4

Episodic

Semantic

Question 5

What the are types of non declarative memory?

Answer 5

Priming
Procedural
Non associative
Associative

Question 6

How do we form non associative memories?

Answer 6

Through habituation and sensitisation

Question 7

How do we form associative memories?

Answer 7

Through associative conditioning (classical or operant)

Question 8

In what animal model has habituation been studied in?

Answer 8

Aplysia by Eric Kendall

Question 9

What is habituation?

Answer 9

The process by which a repeated stimuli will eventually become less noticeable. The response is dampened by repeated stimulation

Question 10

Where does non associative memory occur?

Answer 10

Within the spinal cord (spinal reflex)

Question 11

Why is habituation useful?

Answer 11

Allows for the differentiation between a harmful/ harmless stimuli

Question 12

How do studies in aplysia show habituation?

Answer 12

They show a reduced gill withdrawal reflex secondary to repeated siphon skin stimulation. Due to reduced neurotransmitter from the sensory neuron to the motor neuron

Question 13

What is sensitisation?

Answer 13

Where some sort of harsh stimulus actually an intensified responce. Form of learning to protect us from harm of danger. I.e. Repeated stimulus increases the response

Question 14

Where does classical and operant conditioning occur?

Answer 14

Within the cerebellum

Question 15

Describe classical conditioning

Answer 15

Normally and unconditioned stimulus (US) will elicit and unconditioned reaction (UR). This is physiological and unlearned. Upon pairing the US and conditioned stimulus (CS) you will still get the UR. However, if this is repeated and the US and CS are paired and the CS will be associated with the UR with each other in an optimal time frame, the CS alone will elicit an similar response. This will be know as the conditioned response .

Question 16

What is the process by which the CR can be unlearned?

Answer 16

Extinction.
This may occur if the CS is no longer predicative of the US. I.e. The bell after a while is no longer paired with the food the CR will no longer be elicited by the CS

Question 17

What is operant/instrumental conditioning?

Answer 17

where behaviours are learnt to be repeated or attenuated based on the consequence of the behaviour. Essentially a relationship between a behaviour and a consequence is learned.

Question 18

How may a behaviour be reinforced to occur?

Answer 18

If the consequence of the behaviour is positive (positive reinforcement) or a noxious stimuli is removed following behaviour or behaviour avoids the noxious stimuli i.e. Escape (negative reinforcement)

Question 19

How through operant condition and a behaviour be attenuated?

Answer 19

Through punishment
I.e. Behaviour = addition of noxious stimuli (positive punishment)
OR
Behaviour = removal of a positive of a positive stimulus e.g. Removing a child’s toy when the misbehave

Question 20

What drives operant conidtioning?

Answer 20

Motivation i.e. Animal will not press the lever to recover food of it is not hungry.

Question 21

How is classical and operant conditioning different?

Answer 21

May occur through similar neuronal pathways.However, classical conditioning occurs when a CS is predicative of a US. In operant a particular behaviour is associated with a particular consequence

Question 22

Where does fear conditioning occur?

Answer 22

Within the amygdala

Question 23

where is procedure memory learnt?

Answer 23

In the striatum and cerebellum

Question 24

What is procedural memory?

Answer 24

Learning a habit or motor response/ sequence in reaction to sensory stimuli. I.e how to ride a bike

Question 25

What do striatum lesions affect?

Answer 25

Non declarative memories

Question 26

What experiment can be done to test declarative memory?

Answer 26

Lesion the hippocampus whilst doing the delay non-match to sample experiment in monkeys

Question 27

What is the delayed non-match to sample experiment?

Answer 27

Monkey faces a table with several wells. Initially one object (wooden block) covers one of the wells and monkey is trained to lift a object to get to food in the well). A screen then prevents the monkey seeing the table for some period of time (delay interval). Table then reveal but now two objects cover two different wells, one is the same as before and the other is new). In a match to sample test the animal must delay the object it recognises to get the food. In a delayed non-match to sample the animal must displace the new object to get the food reward.

Question 28

What does DNMS teach us about the hippocampus in memory?

Answer 28

Bilateral hippocampal lesions in monkeys Performance was normal if delay period was a few seconds between the two experiments. (Indicates that the animals perception was still intact and the animal remembered the DNMS procedure). However, after a few minutes the animals would have more errors in choosing the non matching stimulus. I.e. Animal was no longer good at membering the object they were taught to recognise (sample stimulus) is delay was too long.

Question 29

What structures are essential for declarative memory?

Answer 29

Hippocampus | The entorhinal cortex (peri rhinal especially)

Question 30

How do animals with a striatal lesion perform in the DNSM task?

Answer 30

They perform fine means declarative memory is intact

Question 31

What do animals with lesions of the striatum have impairments in?

Answer 31

Forming habits i.e. In the DNSM apparatus monkeys will be exposed to two to visual stimuli and have to lift one shape to receive the reward underneath. This form of instrumental conditioning is impaired. I.e. Animal shows impairment of retrieving the food associated with one visual stimulus rather than another. Therefore, learned habits use the striatum.

Question 32

What do patients with huntingtons disease show?

Answer 32

Impairment of learning a task where a motor response is associated with a stimulus.

Question 33

What is priming?

Answer 33

Unconscious enhanced recall of primed objects

Question 34

What is declarative memory?

Answer 34

Conscious recall of information about people, places of things

Question 35

What is needed for decorative memory?

Answer 35

``` Temporal lobe (possible site of consolidation/ storage of memory engrams) Diencephalic structures e.g. Hippocampus subiculum and entorhinal cortex. (Site of memory formation) ```

Question 36

Where does priming occur?

Answer 36

The entire cortex

Question 37

What is episodic memory?

Answer 37

Refers to memory of specific events in time. Unique event which only happened once so no chance for rehearsal (involves the cortex)

Question 38

What is semantic memory?

Answer 38

Refers to knowledge of the external world e.g. What is the capital of France involves frontal and temporal lobe

Question 39

What did patient H.M have removed?

Answer 39

Bilateral hippocampal removal | 2/3 of hippocampus formation, parahippocampal gyrus (removal of all entorhinal cortex) and amygdala

Question 40

What did patient HM show?

Answer 40

Severe anterograde amnesia (short term memory was intact but could not form new memories) Moderate retrograde amnesia (perhaps showing these structures to be important in memory storage too i..e could not remember some events 11 years before surgery)

Question 41

What was left intact for patient HM?

Answer 41

The ability to have procedural memories and motor skills. He was able to draw a figure looking at his reflection in the mirror