Learning and memory

Question 1

what is the definition of memory?

Answer 1

the acquisition, encoding, storage and retrieval of information in the nervous system

Question 2

what are the types of memory?

Answer 2

declarative = consciously accessible information i.e. facts and figures
non-declarative = unconscious information including procedural memory
short term = immediate recall lasting only seconds
working memory = seconds to minutes long
long-term memory = days to years long

Question 3

what is amnesia and what are the types of amnesia?

Answer 3

amnesia is the term for any pathophysiological conditions which cause forgetting
anterograde amnesia = inability to form new memories but old memories remain
retrograde amnesia = inability to recall long -term memories but ability to form new short term memories remains

Question 4

what area of the brain is involved in short term memory formation and encoding (and how do we know)

Answer 4

the hippocampus - we know this because brain injury case studies have shown that damage to the hippocampus results in anterograde amnesia. long term memory seems to involve many parts of the brain

Question 5

what is long term potentiation?

Answer 5

the process by which neurons in the hippocampus (it happens in other places too though) become sensitised to stimuli. after one-time maximal stimulation, the neuron will then respond in the same heightened way to a much smaller stimulus.

Question 6

describe the cellular process of long term potentiation

Answer 6

1. glutamate is released from the pre-synaptic neuron
2. glutamate diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to specific glutamate receptors called AMPA receptors
3. binding of glutamate triggers an action potential in the post-synaptic neuron
4. NMDA receptors which are usually blocked by Mg2+ ions are unblocked due to changes in voltage
5. unblocking NMDA receptors allow calcium ions to enter the post-synaptic cell
6. calcium ions start an intracellular cascade which makes the cell more sensitive to glutamate. this involves the creation of more AMPA receptors and the sensitisation of existing AMPA receptors through phosphorylation
7. calcium also activates enzymes, creating a substance called PKA which activates CREB (a gene transcription factor)
8. activating CREB causes the cell to change gene activation, producing more proteins associated with synaptogenesis, synaptic stabilisation and synaptic strength. it also leads to neurogenesis (growth of new neurons in the brain)

Question 7

summarise the process of memory consolidation

Answer 7

encoding of short term memory in hippocampus –> use dependent change in neuronal excitability –> linked to long term changes in connectivity –> neural pathways back to associative cortex –> longer term storage (appears to happen throughout association reasons in the brain)

Question 8

what is the definition of learning?

Answer 8

a relatively permanent change in behaviour or knowledge occurring as a result of experience

Question 9

what is classical conditioning?

Answer 9

learning through association (Pavlovs dogs). can also be applied to learning phobia (Little Albert study)
In detail:
natural stimulus - response
pairing of natural stimulus with neutral stimulus - response (learning)
neutral stimulus alone - response

Question 10

what is operant conditioning?

Answer 10

learning through consequences (Skinners box)
- positive reinforcement = positive reward to encourage behaviour
- negative reinforcement = removal of negative thing to encourage behaviour
- positive punishment = adding an unpleasant consequence to discourage behaviour
- negative punishment = removing a pleasant thing to discourage behaviour

Question 11

what factors affect operant conditioning?

Answer 11

• schedule (when and how behaviour is reinforced)
• value of reinforcer/desirability of the reward
• state of learner

Question 12

what is observational learning?

Answer 12

learning through observing others (modelling behaviour). can occur without knowledge and depends both on the status of the model and the consequences to the model

Question 13

what is avoidance learning?

Answer 13

learning a behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimuli (occurs through the process of classical and operant conditioning).

Question 14

how can learning theories be applied to pain coping strategies?

Answer 14

people learn pain responses through many different methods (including avoidance learning, observational learning etc). pain management techniques can therefore involve teaching new coping strategies (observational/educational learning) or experiential practice (learning through experience) to try and promote healthy coping strategies.

Question 15

outline the two process model of memory

Answer 15

environment –> sensory memory –> attention –> short term memory (rehearsal keeps information here) –> encoding –> long term memory –> retrieval –> short term memory

Question 16

what factors influence recall?

Answer 16

• recognition vs recall (we may recognise information when we see it but can’t independently recall it)
• familiarity (we remember things better when they’re familiar)
• context and state dependent recall (we remember better when we recall things in the same context and state as when we learnt it)
• primary and recency effects (we remember first and last information best)
• stress and anxiety (inverted U, recall is best during medium levels of anxiety)
• health and illness beliefs, including health literacy
• age and general health/cognitive ability

Question 17

what can you do to improve memory when talking to a client?

Answer 17

• raise or lower arousal levels as appropriate
• key message first and last
• allow them to ask questions/repeat information
• bitesize chunks of information
• don’t use jargon
• find out what they already know/what their frame of reference is