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M) Behavioral Medicine [Term 2] > Learning and Memory > Flashcards

Learning and Memory Flashcards

1
Q

What is learning?

A

• A relative permanent change in behaviour due to

experience (Coon, 2005)

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2
Q

• Types of learning

A
  • Cognitive learning
  • Associative learning
  • Classical conditioning
  • Operant conditioning
  • Social learning
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3
Q

Cognitive learning

A
  • Cognitive factors that influence the process of learning
  • Understanding, knowing, anticipating, or otherwise making use of information-rich higher mental processes, to facilitate learning. (Coon, 2005)
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4
Q

• Cognitive maps

A

• Mental representation of the spatial features of an area

A mental picture or image of the layout of one’s physical environment.

Get the gist 
> Skim through the text 
> read selection carefully 
> Highlight who what wheres 
> Write a 20-word gist summary using the information you have highlighted
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5
Q
  • Perceptual-motor skills

* Intellectual skills

A
  • Motor movements that are guided by perception

* Eg. Playing tennis, driving a car

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6
Q

• Intellectual skills

A

are learned through associating, discriminating – form
concepts to represent things, learn rules for using concepts to think and
reason
• Discovery learning – refers to skills gained by insight and understanding
through trying new strategies and discovering a new solution

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7
Q

Associative learning

A

• Learning takes place by associating one thing or event with another
• Conditioning - automatic level
• Not deliberately learned
• Response occurs because of the spontaneous or
automatic association of one event or stimulus with
another
• Pairing of stimulus and response

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8
Q

Two types of associative learning exist:

A
  • classical conditioning

* operant conditioning

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9
Q

Associative learning: Classical Conditioning

A

Type of learning that takes place when a response usually elicited by one stimulus is then associated
with a different stimulus (that would not normally lead to that response) e.g. Pavlov’s dog

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10
Q

Classical conditioning - Unconditioned and conditioned

A

• Unconditioned stimulus – this is the stimulus that causes the subject
to respond in a specific way before any learning has taken place
(food)
• Unconditioned response – this is the response to an unconditional
stimulus (salivating)

• Conditioned stimulus – this is a stimulus that initially is neutral but through
association (paired with unconditioned stimulus) it may produce the desired
response when presented without the unconditioned stimulus (bell ringing)
• Conditioned response – this is the response that follows the conditioned
stimulus (salivating)

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11
Q

Example of Conditionedness

A

I need more clarity here

Neural stimulus (song) –> Unconditioned stimulus (kiss) –> Unconditioned response (heart rate increases)

Conditioned stimulus (song) –> Conditioned response (heart rate increases)

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12
Q

Principles of classical conditioning

A

• Spontaneous recovery – the reappearance of a response that seems to
have diminished
• Stimulus generalization – the tendency to respond to similar but not
identical stimuli
• Stimulus discrimination – the animal or person can discriminate or
detect differences among similar stimuli and respond only to a
specific stimulus.

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13
Q

Classical conditioning dwight!

A

Bell and saliva

the relationship is between bell as a stimulus and food as a stimulus –> response saliva

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14
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Behavior–> Reinforcement and Negative reinforcement leading to a Better likelihood of behavior continuing

Punishment after the behavior leads to a decreased likelihood that the behavior will continue.

Note that negative reinforcement is not the same thing as punishment.

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15
Q

Principles of Operant Conditioning

A

• Reinforcer is anything that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the desired response will occur again
• New behaviors are learned because they are reinforced.
• Most effective when it occurs immediately after the desired response
is produced

• Positive reinforcement – occurs when a pleasant or desirable
reinforcer follows a response.
• Negative reinforcement – occurs when making a response removes an unpleasant event, eg when the child tidies up their parent stops
nagging
• Punishment – unpleasant consequence that decreases the likelihood
of a response.

Note that consistency is essential

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16
Q

Partial reinforcement

A

• Reinforcement does not follow every response – only some responses
are reinforced
• Eg. Casino

• Fixed-ratio schedule – fixed number of responses must be made in
order to obtain reinforcement
• Produce good response rates because the reinforcement is predictable

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17
Q

Partial reinforcement - Variable-ratio schedule.

A
  • The number of responses that must be made before reinforcement is offered is varied
  • Produces good response rates and greater resistance to extinction.
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18
Q

Partial reinforcement •Fixed-interval schedule

A

Refers to time elapsed – reinforcement is only given following the first correct response after a fixed time has elapsed regardless of the number of responses
(daily / weekly / monthly….)
–Produces a moderately good rate of responding but
responses generally occur in spurts

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19
Q

Partial reinforcement• Variable-interval ratio

A

• Refers to the time elapsed – reinforcement is given for the first correct response after a different time
intervals

• Produces a slow, steady response that is strongly resistant to extinction

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20
Q

Punishment

A

• Application of something unpleasant following an undesired response
in order to reduce the likelihood of the response re-occurring
• Should only occur after the undesired response occurs
• Timing, consistency and intensity

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21
Q

Summary of Operant Conditioning

A

result: whistle - sit up

Stimulus - Whistle
Key Relationship [Response = situp and Reinforcer = food]
antecedent - time

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22
Q

Social learning

A

• Learn through interacting with other people
• Observational learning – watching and imitating the behavior of
others and observing the consequences of those actions

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23
Q

Observational Social Learning

A

• Attention – pay attention to the model’s behavior and the consequences of
the behavior
• Retention – you must save a mental representation of what you have
observed
• Reproduction – you must be able to reproduce the observed behavior
• Motivation – you will only reproduce the behavior you have observed if you are motivated.

24
Q

Summarising LEARNING - Theory of Learning

A
  1. Classical conditioning - A type of conditioning in whiv=ch an individual response to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response
2. Operant conditioning - A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.
# Behaviorism = Behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner
  1. Social-learning Theory = People can learn through observation and direct experience

Attentional processes- retention processes - motor reproduction processes - Reinforcement processes

25
Q

Memory

A

• Incorrectly considered ‘a dusty warehouse of facts’

• In reality, memory is an active system that retrieves, stores,
organizes, alters, and recovers information.

26
Q

MEMORY -Information processing approach.

• The dynamic system in the brain, in which information is:

A
  • Encoded: Incoming information is changed into a usable form. The input or acquisition stage.
  • Stored: Held in the system. Involves organisation of information.

• Retrieved: In order to be useful, information needs to be recovered from
storage.

27
Q

Multi-store Model of Memory

A

• Sensory memory: holds
• an EXACT COPY of what you see or hear
• for a few seconds or less – just long enough to move it to the second memory
system

  • The information is either:
  • Forgotten or
  • If attended to then passes on to STM (short term memory)
28
Q

Short-Term Memory (STM)

A

• Movement to STM determined by selective attention.
• Encoded as images or sounds (phonetically); no longer exact sensory image.
• Sensitive to interruption or interference.
• Combined with other mental processes to form working memory:
information is held briefly for thinking, manipulating concepts, and solving problems.
• Short-term memory (STM) The memory system used to hold small
amounts of information for relatively brief time periods

29
Q

What happens to something when you think it?

A

Incoming information as sensory memory
Either forgotten or goes to selective attention after selective attention goes to short memory after there either forgotten or goes to Storage into the long term memory.

30
Q

Working memory [aka short term memory]

A

• STM is often used more for more than just storing information.
• When STM is combined with other mental processes, it provides an area of WORKING MEMORY where we do much of our thinking.
• Working memory acts as a sort of “mental scratchpad”.
• It briefly holds the information we need when we are thinking and solving problems.
• E.G. doing mental arithmetic, putting a puzzle together, planning a meal,
following directions, reading a book you are using working memory.
• Working memory: Another name for short-term memory, especially when it is used for thinking and problem-solving.

31
Q

Long term memory

A
  • If STM is so limited, how do we remember for longer periods of time?
  • Information that is important or meaningful is transferred to LTM.
  • LTM acts as a lasting storehouse for knowledge.
  • Yet there appears to be no danger of running out of memory.
  • Long-term memory (LTM) The memory system used for relatively permanent storage of meaningful information.
  • If STM is so limited, how do we remember for longer periods?
  • Are long-term memories also encoded as sounds?
  • STM: barn –> yarn
  • LTM: barn – > shed / farm
32
Q

Dual memory system

A 
STM = like a small front desk 
LTM = like a warehouse of filing cabinets
33
Q

Short-term memory what it is.

A

• STM limited to +/- 7 information bits. A bit is a single meaningful piece of information.
• Information bits can be grouped or recoded into larger units called
information chunks, which are already in LTM.
• A single chunk can be made up of numbers, letters or words that are
meaningfully linked together

34
Q

STM: REHEARSAL

A 
How long do Short Term memories last?
• Maintenance rehearsal
• Silent repeating
• Elaborate learning
• Making information more meaningful
35
Q

During Brain surgery what happens?

A

An electrode touched the patient’s brain. Immediately she said
“Yes sir I think I heard a mother calling her little boy somewhere” It seemed to be something happening years ago. It was somebody in the
neighborhood I live.”

Sometime later the electrode was applied to the same spot. The patient then elaborated on the memory.

When some brain areas are activated they seemed to produce vivid
memories of long-forgotten events.

36
Q

LTM: PERMANENCE

A

Are all our experiences permanently recorded in memory?

• Relative permanence
- Perfect, eternal memories are a myth.

• Constructing Memories
- As new long-term memories are stored, older memories are often upgraded,
changed, lost, or revised.

• Constructive processing

  • Updating memories
  • Gaps in memory, which are common may be filled in by logic, guessing, or new information

• Mistaken ‘true memories’
• Not “overwriting” existing memories
• Forensic psychologists still researching this intriguing
problem

37
Q

Long-Term Memory: In summary

A

Forming and using memories is an active, creative,
highly personal process.
• Our memories are colored by emotions, judgments, and our individual personalities.

• We remember what we pay attention to, what we
regarded as meaningful or important, and what we feel
strongly about

38
Q

Memory Structure

A

•Information in LTM may be arranged according to rules, images, categories, symbols, similarity, formal meaning, or personal meaning.

  • In recent years, psychologists have begun to develop a picture of the structure, or organization, of memories.
  • Memory structure refers to the pattern of associations among items of information.
39
Q

Memory Structure

A

• A network model of memory explains
these associations

• According to this view, LTM is organized as a network of linked ideas

• When ideas are “farther” apart, it takes a longer chain of associations to connect
them.

  • The more two items are separated, the longer it takes to answer.
  • Network model A model of memory that views it as an organized system of linked information.
40
Q

Long term memory types

A
  • It is becoming more clear that more than one type of LTM exists.
  • Procedural memory (or skill memory)
  • The other is declarative memory (also sometimes called fact memory) it is divided into Semantic memory and Episodic memory.
41
Q

LTM: Procedural memory

A

• Actions, perceptual-motor responses, habits (conditioned responses) or skills (learned actions), implicit memories.
• Knowing ‘how’
• Cerebellum
• Not consciously aware of it
• Procedural memory Long-term memories of conditioned
responses and learned skills.

42
Q

LTM: DECLARATIVE MEMORY

A

• Factual information (names, faces, words, dates, or ideas)
• Expressed as words of symbols
• Knowing ‘that’ (general knowledge)
• This is type of memory that a person with amnesia lacks and most of
us take forgranted.
• Divided into semantic memory (general knowledge) and episodic
memory (events and personal experiences related to specific times).
• Declarative memory That part of long-term memory containing
specific factual information.

43
Q

DECLARATIVE MEMORY: Semantic memory

A
  • Semantic Memory
  • Memory for knowledge about the world.
  • resistant to forgetting.
  • Independent of context.
  • Facts, rules and concepts, items of general knowledge.
  • Episodic Memory
  • Autobiographical record of personal experiences.
  • Stored according to time and place.
  • Semantic memory A subpart of declarative memory that records impersonal knowledge about the world.
44
Q

DECLARATIVE MEMORY: Episodic memory

A

• “autobiographical” record of personal experiences
• “what” “where” and “when” of our lives
• Ability to mentally travel back in time and re-experience events
• Episodic memories are more easily forgotten than
semantic. This is because new information
constantly pours into episodic memory.
• Episodic memory A subpart of declarative memory
that records personal experiences that are linked
with specific times and places.

45
Q

REMEMBERING

A
  • It’s not either you remember or you don’t.
  • Partial memories are common
  • Type of partial memory
  • recognition
  • Partial memory is also demonstrated by the tip-of-the-tongue state.
  • This is the feeling that a memory is available, but not quite retrievable.

• Feeling of knowing: people can often tell beforehand if they are likely to
remember something

46
Q

Memory testing

A
  • Memory is not an all-or-nothing event, therefore there are several ways of measuring memory.
  • Three commonly used memory tasks (tests of memory) are:
  1. recall
  2. recognition and
  3. relearning.
47
Q

Tests of memory: Recalling Information

A
  • What is the name of your favorite CD?
  • _____ performed the first heart surgery.
  • Verbatim (word for word memory)
  • Recall is a direct retrieval of facts or information.
  • Serial position effect ie can remember the first and last items on a list.
48
Q

Tests of memory: Recognizing Information

A

• “think of everything you learned from the last lecture I gave you!”…..
Ooops…. What???
• In recognition memory, previously learned material is correctly identified.
• More sensitive test: multiple choice test
• Superior to recalling

49
Q

Tests of memory: Relearning Information

A

• Relearning: learning again something that was previously learned.
Used to measure memory of prior learning.

• Like climbing back onto a bicycle… get into it much quicker compared
to the first time
• Saving score (the amount of time saved when relearning information)

• Relearning is measured by a savings score (the amount of time saved
when relearning information).

50
Q

IMPLICIT / EXPLICIT MEMORIES

A

Many Typists:
• Can type without looking at the keyboard
• Can’t consciously say where letters go

• Explicit memory is a memory that a person is aware of having; a memory
that can be consciously retrieved.
• Implicit memory is a memory that a person does not know exists; a
memory that is retrieved unconsciously.

51
Q

Priming

A

How is it possible to show that a memory exists if it lies outside of awareness?

  • Recall list of words…. X
  • “say a word that begins with these letters: CH” [tick]
  • Priming: a stimulus that activates hidden memories
52
Q

Curve of forgetting

A 
• Immediate recall: recall about 
100%
• 20 minutes later: about 70%
• 1 hour later just over 50%
• 9 hours later just over 40%
• Then the curve flattens out. 
• Notice that forgetting is rapid 
at first and is then followed by 
a slow decline.
53
Q

Reasons for forgetting encoding failure and memory decay.

A

1) Encoding Failure – memory was never encoded in the first place.
2) Memory Decay – memory traces (changes in neuronal structure or brain activity) become weaker over time. Evident in Sensory and
STM. It may be due to disuse (Fade because of infrequent retrieval).

54
Q

Reasons for forgetting Cue-dependant forgetting and Interference

A

3) Cue-Dependent Forgetting
– Memories are available but not accessible because necessary memory cues missing at the time of attempted retrieval.
– Memory cue: any stimulus associated with a particular memory.
Memory cues usually enhance retrieval.
4) Interference
– Similar new information interferes with the storage or retrieval of older memories. – They become confused.
– Both STM and LTM.
– Interference refers to the tendency for new memories to impair retrieval of older memories (and the reverse)

55
Q

Reasons for forgetting New memories and motivated forgetting

A

5) New memories replace old
• New information can completely wipe out old.
6) Motivated forgetting
• Painful/threatening memories blocked from consciousness. Known as repression. Difficult to objectively verify.
• Repression is unconsciously pushing unwanted memories out of awareness.

56
Q

Forgetting: When retrieval fails

A 
Amnesia:-
• Retrograde
• Before injury
• Consolidation interfered with
• Retrograde amnesia: involves forgetting events that occurred before an injury 
or trauma
• Anterograde
• Events after injury
• Damage of hippocampus
• Anterograde amnesia involves forgetting events that follow an injury or 
trauma
57
Q

Enhancing Your Memory

A

• Recitation refers to summarizing aloud while you are learning.
• Rehearsal (mentally review)
• Selection ie being very selective of one or two important ideas in
sections working in
• Organisation: organize information into chunks
• Cues: it often helps to elaborate information as you learn.

Elaborate learning
Making information more meaningful
• ACRONYM
• KISS: Keep It Short and Sweet
• ROY-G-BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
• ORGANISE THE TEXT into ming=d maps and flow charts.

Also , you can create a story

M) Behavioral Medicine [Term 2] (8 decks)

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