Learning Aim B Flashcards
What is primary data?
Data that is collected by the researcher
What is secondary data?
Data that has been gathered by someone other than the researcher
What is empirical data?
Data obtained by observations, measurements or from experiences
What are the 4 methods of primary data?
- interviews
- questionnaires
- observations
- experiments
What is a strength of primary data?
- data is up to date as it would have been recently collected
What are the 3 limitations of primary data?
- time consuming
- validity and reliability can be undermined because of flaws in research
- costly
What are the 5 methods of secondary data?
- Statistics produced by the government
- Journals
- Letters
- Personal diaries
- Newspapers
What is a strength of secondary data?
- Quick and cheap to get as it already exists
What are the 2 limitation of secondary data?
- May contain bias
- May lack validity for current research needs
What is quantitative data?
Data that is numerical (numbers)
What is qualitative data?
Data made up of words e.g. sentences, paragraphs or descriptions which helps to understand human behaviour
What are the methods of quantitative data?
- graphs
- pie charts
- tables
- questionnaires
- interviews
- observations
- surveys
What are two strengths of quantitative data?
- Reliable
- Easy to analyse
What are 2 limitations of quantitative data?
- Impossible for researchers to explain the reasons for people’s behaviours as it lacks depth
- Lacks validity as it only shows “how much” not “why”
What are the methods of qualitative data?
- unstructured interviews
- observations
- secondary sources e.g. diaries and case studies
What are the 2 strengths of qualitative data?
- in depth
- more meaningful and can explain human behaviour
What is the limitation of qualitative data?
Lacks objectivity
What does it mean when something is reliable?
When another researcher is able to repeat your study the exact way you did and get the same results
What does it mean when something is valid?
When your results show the “true picture” of the group you’ve studied
What is an objective?
When you make sure that your personal opinion and beliefs do not influence the results of your study and you must be unbiased
What is a pilot study?
A small scale trial run of the first draft of the questionnaire which allows the readers her to spot any mistakes and correct them before carrying out the main survey
What is an open question?
A question that can’t be answered with just “yes” or “no” so a more detailed response is required
What is closed question?
This is a question that can be answered with just “yes” or “no” so a more straightforward answer.
What is a respondent?
An individual from the selected sample who submit a completed questionnaire to the researcher
What is a response frame?
A menu of answer options provided for a closed questions
What 5 factors need to be considered when constructing a questionnaire?
- Whether to use open or closed questions or both
- Questions need to be short and free from, any ambiguous meaning
- Question on sensitive issues need to be asked indirectly
- Response frames need to be carefully constructed so there is an answer
What is a questionnaire?
A list of written questions
What are the 3 different ways questionnaires can be?
- Postal
- Self-completion
- Interview
What are postal questionnaires and what are the 2 limitations that come with this?
These are posted to respondents or emails
1. Lost in post
2. Low response rate
What are self-completion questionnaires?
These are given out to respondents who fill in the answered themselves then returned e.g. tick boxes
What are interview questionnaires?
Where the researcher reads out the questions to the respondent and notes down the answer e.g. over the phone of face-to-face
Give me 3 advantages of questionnaires?
- They are a quick and cheap way of gathering data from a large number of respondents
- They allow comparisons to be made between e.g. different societies
- This data is easy to quantify and analyse especially if closed ended questions are used
Give me 3 disadvantages of questionnaires
- Data tends to be limited as questionnaires cannot include too much questions to prevent the respondent being put off
- Data may lack validity if respondents lie or do not understand the question
- May have low response rates which can affect the validity e.g. postal questionnaires
What is simple random sampling?
This is randomly picking people from the sampling frame and every one on the sampling frame has an equal chance of being selected
What is stratified random sampling?
This is dividing the population into groups
What is systematic sampling?
This is choosing every 5th or 10th person from the sampling frame
What is quota sampling?
When the researcher is sent out with instructions to find people with certain characteristics e.g. woman over the age of 30
What is opportunity sampling?
Where researchers hand out questionnaires to individuals who happen to be passing by at that time
What are structured interviews?
A set of standardised pre-set questions is read out to the respondent by the researcher
What are the 2 advantages of structured interviews?
- They produce quantitative data which is easy to analyse and allows for comparisons to be made
- Higher response rate than questionnaires as people find it harder to refuse a face-to-face request to be interviewed
What are the 2 disadvantages of structured interviews?
- Data is limited so the findings lack validity
- Validity is affected if respondent lies and questions are closed
What are semi structured interviews?
The researcher can have pre-set questions but also can follow up on interesting responses
What are the 2 adavantage of semi-structured interviews?
- Less of a chance of interview bias (when the presence of an interviewer affects the answers given) as the interview is formal
- Data is more valid than structured interviews as the researcher can probe the respondent for more detail
What is the disadvantage of semi-structured interviews?
The data is more difficult to compare
What are unstructured interviews?
More like a conversation. The researcher just has general issues and topics to discuss
What are the 2 advantages of unstructured interviews?
- Interviewer can establish a rapport with the respondent which allows the respondent to be more comfortable and open up
- If interviewee does not understand the question, the interviewer can rephrase and interviewer can ask the respondent to elaborate on a point
What are the 2 disadvantages of an unstructured interview?
- The interviewer must be highly trained
- Time consuming
What is a focus group?
Where many respondents are interviewed at once and are allowed to discuss the questions being asked of them
What are the 2 advantages of a focus group?
- Participants may feel more comfortable with others and open up more
- Comments made by one respondent stimulate the thinking of others
What are the 2 disadvantages of focus groups?
- 1 or 2 more participants may dominate the discussion, preventing others from participating
- Peer group pressure may lead to some not saying what they really think
What is longitudinal study?
Continuous repeated measures to follow particular individuals over a long period of time often years or decades
2 strengths of longitudinal studies?
- Can look at the influence of childhood on adulthood behaviour
- Examine social changes over time e.g. people’s attitudes
2 weaknesses of longitudinal study
- Expensive
- People might drop out of the study
What is a case study?
A real life example, explored in depth, relevant to the issue being researched which provides qualitative data
What are 2 strengths of case studies?
- Qualitative
- Can help generate new ideas
What are 2 limitations of case studies?
- Time consuming
- Difficult to replicate ( low reliability )
What is triangulation?
Data gathered using one method which can be compared with data from another method to test how accurate it is
What is action research?
A fork of investigation where they try to solve problems in their own settings
What is an experiment?
Designed test to assess the validity (truthfulness) of a hypothesis
What is a hypothesis?
A statement that predicts the relationship between 2 variables
What is a variable?
Entity of factor that can have a range of measurable values and a factor that will effect the results
What is a control group?
A group of individuals participating in research but who are not exposed to the health or care intervention being investigated
2 Advantages of variables?
- Can be replicated
- Cheaper and less time consuming
2 disadvantages of variables
- Not typical of real life situations
- Participants may guess the purpose of research and subconsciously influence the data
What is a clinical trial?
Research studies that explore whether a medical strategy or treatment is safe and effective for humans
What is a checklist?
A list of predetermined statements or feature against which the presence of absences the feature is recorded
What is the benefit of checklists?
Quick and convenient to use when observing behaviours
What is participant observation?
Where the researcher actively gets involved in the actions of the group s they are researching
What is a Non-participant observation?
When a researcher observes but does not take part in the activity. E.g. someone to observe a lesson
What is covert observation?
This is where the people you are researching do not know you are there to observe them
What is overt observation?
Where the group you are watching know that you’re are a researcher
3 Strengths of observations?
- You do not have to rely on anyone else’s memory or opinion so data that you gather should be more reliable
- It allows the observer to ask the kind of naive but important questions that only an observer can ask increasing validity
- Cover observation reduces the risk of altering people’s behaviour and sometimes the only way to obtain valid information
What are 3 disadvantages of observations?
- A group may refuse the researcher permission to observe them
- Observer may have to participate in immoral or illegal activities as part of their cover role
- Time consuming
What is an experiment?
This is a specifically designed test to assess the validity (truthfulness) of a hypothesis
What is a hypothesis?
A statement that predicts the relationship between two variables
What is a variable?
A factor that will effect the results
What is a control group?
A group of individuals participating in research who are not exposed to the health or care intervention being investigated
Give an example of a hypothesis
Low-cost airlines are more likely to have delays than premium
What do checklists consist of?
predetermined statements
Give examples where checklists will be used?
- to record the time or day when a repeated action took place e.g. temperature of a fridge
- check on emergency equipment e.g. fire alarms
What are the 6 stages research?
- Decide on aims and hypothesis
- Research method
- Select the sample-people who will take part in the research
- Consider ethical issues and conduct the research
- Analyse the data
- Evaluate the research project
What is question 1 about?
Talking about the suitability of research methods in the original article
What is question 2 about?
- talking about the importance of the research issue
- secondary research
What is question 3 about?
Talks about the effect of the research on provision and practice and future recommendations for change
What is question 4 about?
- unseen case study
- considerations
- ethical issues
- research methodologies and research skills
What should you look for in the case study?
- anything about research methods = question 1
- something on why this research is so important = question 2
- anything that talks about changes to provision or practice or future recommendations
What should be included in your answers for question 1 and how long should you time yourself?
- the suitability of the research methods used (strengths and weaknesses)
- RELIABILITY and VALIDITY of research methods why or why not? (strengths and weaknesses) e.g. questionnaires
- aprox 40 mins
- is the sample representative and generalisable?
- is the research method producing valid data? Why or why not?
- CONCLUSION as to whether this research method is suitable for this research topic
- RELATE POINTS BACK TO ARTICLE
What should be included in your answers for question 2 and how long should you time yourself?
- link to how the research articles you have found in your SECONDARY RESEARCH also support the IMPORTANCE of this topic
- HOW does the ISSUE in the ARTICLE affect:
Individuals - positive and negative
Professionals - positive and negative
Wider society - positive and negative - aprox 40 mins
What should be included in your answers for question 3 and how long should you time yourself?
- include effect on provisions and/or practice
- recommendations for change in future provision ands/or practice based on MY secondary research
- aprox 50 mins
PROVISION -the type and range of services provided in this area - what effect does/could the findings and recommendations have on H&SC provision?
PRACTICE - the care that service providers give in these services - what effect does/could the findings and recommendations have on H&SC practice?
RECOMMENDATIONS - what recommendations does the article make and does your secondary research show the same kind of implementation for practice as the original research? Strongly support your recommended changes? Support some. Ht not all of your recommended changes? Criticise any of your recommended changes?
What should be included in your answers for question 4 and how long should you time yourself?
- the ethical issues that may arise (general applicable issues and those specific to the research being proposed)
- the suitability and effectiveness of the research methodologies the researcher chose and make justified suggestions for improvements
- what research skills will the researcher need; organisational skills, time management, non-judgemental practice, referencing, data analysis, interpreting skills
- LINK POINTS TO THE CASE STUDY AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE AND ENSURE YOUR ANSWER COVERS EACH OF THE 4 AREAS OF FOCUS IN A BALANCED WAY
- mention validity and reliability
- aprox 40 mins
What are the 2 practical strengths of interview’s
- Can monitor body language and non-verbal cues
- Can clarify questions not understood by the respondent
What are the ethical strengths of interviews?
- An appropriate way to research sensitive issues
- Informed consent is easy to obtain
- Rapport can be developed putting the responded at ease
- They can be conducted in familiar environments
3 limitations of unstructured interviews
- Difficult to generalise as often performed on a small scale - time consuming
- Researcher might be subjective in their reading of the respondent
- They are not standardised and lack reliability as not replicable
3 advantages of focus groups
- You can get large amounts of information in a quick time
- Semi-structured format allows the researchers flexibility to ask follow up questions
- Wider range of respondents so it may be more representative of wider society
3 disadvantages of focus groups
- Presence of others might limit your response
- Not reliable because there’s a wide range of responses so cannot be replicated
- Discussion of sensitive issues is less likely to happen with other people present
