Learning

Question 1

what is learning

Answer 1

“Any lasting change in behaviour resulting from experience”
(Colman, 2001, p. 404)
“The act or process of acquiring knowledge or skill, or knowledge gained by study”
(Colman, 2001, p. 404)

Question 2

Habituation

Answer 2

Simplest form of learning – learning not to respond to an unimportant event that occurs repeatedly
e.g. ticking clock, washing machine, unfamiliar noises
Can be short-term or long-term

We do not want to waste our time responding to something that has no importance!

Question 3

Behaviourism

Answer 3

Behaviourists believe that only observable behaviour can be studied objectively

Behaviour is the only externally observable feature of an organism

Question 4

Classical conditioning Terms

Answer 4

A stimulus that naturally elicits a reflexive behaviour is called an unconditional stimulus (UCS)
The reflexive behaviour itself is called the unconditional response (UCR)
A neutral stimulus which is paired with the UCS to eventually elicit a response is called a conditional stimulus (CS)
The behaviour elicited by a CS is called a conditional response (CR)

Question 5

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Answer 5

Acquisition Phase
- Single pairing of CS with UCS usually not sufficient
Factors that influence acquisition:
- UCS intensity
-Annau & Kamin (1961) found rats learned a conditioned fear response faster when they received higher levels of a painful stimulus
- Timing of CS and UCS – conditioning is faster when delay between CS and UCS is shorter

Question 6

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Answer 6

Extinction
Occurs when the CS (bell) is presented but is no longer followed by the UCS (food)
This eliminates the salivating (the CR)
Important – the subject must learn that the CS no longer predicts the occurrence of the UCS
So extinction will not occur if neither stimulus is presented!

Question 7

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Answer 7

Spontaneous Recovery
When a CR has been extinguished, it may reappear when the CS is presented
Pavlov observed this when his dogs were placed back in the experimental equipment after some time away

Re-pairing of the CS and UCS causes much quicker conditioning than first time round

So extinction may simply weaken the connection between the CS and the UCS

Question 8

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Answer 8

Stimulus Generalisation
Similar stimuli
Closer resemblance = more likely it will elicit the CR
But there are limits to this generalisation
If conditioned to a bell, a phone ringing may also elicit the CR but a knock at the door may not

Question 9

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Answer 9

Discrimination
An organism can be taught to discriminate between two similar but different stimuli:
CS1 (doorbell) – always followed by UCS
CS2 (ringing phone) – never followed by UCS
Initially both will cause the CR, due to generalisation
But over time the CR will stop for CS2

Question 10

What is the value of classical conditioning?

Answer 10

If, through learning, we can recognise stimuli that predict the occurrence of an important event:
We can make the appropriate response faster and/or more accurately or effectively
We can make a neutral (unimportant) stimulus desirable/undesirable
Through classical conditioning we can do this by associating it with a desirable/undesirable stimulus
Real world applications – advertising

Question 11

Classical conditioning – the Cognitive perspective

Answer 11

Zener (1937) conducted very similar experiments to those of Pavlov
When the CS was presented, dogs began to turn towards the tray where the food was delivered
Zener argued that they were expecting the food
Could be a cognitive process
There was an awareness of the relationship between the CS and the US

Question 12

Classical conditioning – real world behaviours

Answer 12

However classical conditioning works, we acquire many emotional responses in this way
Places, phrases or songs once had no special significance to us
Paired with other stimuli that elicited strong emotional responses, they took on an emotional significance of their own
May also explain the acquisition of phobias and food aversions

Question 13

Operant Conditioning

Answer 13

In habituation and classical conditioning, we learn relations between one stimulus and another
In operant conditioning we learn about the relations between environmental stimuli and our own behaviour
A behaviour that leads to a positive consequence will tend to be repeated
A behaviour that has a negative consequence will tend not to be repeated

Question 14

The Law of Effect

Answer 14

Thorndike (1905) called this The Law of Effect – learning by trial and accidental success
Cat initially engages in random behaviours
Those which are followed by positive results will tend to be selected
A favourable outcome strengthens the response that produced it
The cat learned to make a correct response because only this response was followed by a favourable outcome

Question 15

Skinner

Answer 15

Skinner (1938) – coined the term “operant” conditioning
Skinner’s box – Rat or pigeon presses lever accidentally and receives food pellet
Again, interest in observable causes of behaviour
Impact of the environment rather than internal states
Skinner emphasised the role of reinforcement
An organism will continue to perform behaviours that have a positive outcome
…and cease to do those that have a negative outcome

Question 16

Positive reinforcement

Answer 16

An increase in the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by an appetitive stimulus (i.e. a stimulus that the organism seeks out, e.g. food)
E.g. Visit new restaurant  Enjoy meal  Go back to restaurant
Enjoyment of the meal (appetitive stimulus) reinforces going to the restaurant and ordering their food (the response) increase in trips to restaurant
Positive involves the occurrence of an appetitive stimulus

Question 17

Negative reinforcement

Answer 17

An increase in the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by the termination of an aversive stimulus (unpleasant or painful)
Pressing STOP button reliably terminates alarm
Increase in STOP button pressing
Negative involves termination of aversive stimulus

Question 18

Radical behavioursim

Answer 18

More to the study of learning and behaviour than simple stimulus → response relationship
E.g. Tolman – importance of other variables which also shape behaviour, such as cognitive processes (e.g. thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, motivations)
These can be measured by observing changes in behaviour which are the result of our experiences

Question 19

Tolma - cognitive maps

Answer 19

When their original route was blocked off, rats chose the correct short-cut route to lead directly to the food
Rats had learned a ‘cognitive map’ of the routes and chose the shortest one
Applicable to everyday life – e.g. finding different buildings in a new town
Inefficient at first
Becomes more efficient over time – build spatial map

Question 20

Summary

Answer 20

Two main types of learning – classical and operant conditioning
Each emphasises a different approach to learning and has different underlying principles
Behaviourism – interested in stimulus → response relationship
Radical behaviourism retained these principles, but focused more on the intervening variables
Learning as an active mental process