Learning Flashcards
1
Q
what is classical conditioning?
A
- learning by association
2
Q
whats an UCS?
A
- any stimulus producing a natural, unlearned response
3
Q
whats an UCR?
A
- a response that occurs naturally, an unlearned response
4
Q
whats a NS?
A
- an environmental stimulus that does not itself produce a response
5
Q
whats a CS?
A
- a stimulus that has been associated with an UCS so that it now produces the same response
6
Q
whats a CR?
A
- a behaviour that is shown in response to a learned stimulus
7
Q
what is stimulus generalisation?
A
- the tendency for a CS to produce the same behaviour to a similar stimulus after the response has been conditioned
8
Q
what is stimulus discrimination?
A
- learning only occurs in response to a specific stimulus
9
Q
what is extinction?
A
- the removal of a behaviour
10
Q
what is spontaneous recovery?
A
- the reappearance of the CR after a period of rest
11
Q
what is 1 trial learning?
A
- acquiring a new behaviour within a single pairing of the NS and UCS
12
Q
+ evaluation: explain 2 examples of supporting evidence for CC
A
PAVLOV: CC dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell due to associating it with food
W+R: CC little albert to have a phobia of a white rat due to associating it with the banging of an iron bar
13
Q
+ evaluation: explain an example of applications of CC
A
- systematic desensitisation
- flooding
14
Q
- evaluation: explain how CC is reductionist and give a competing argument
A
- focuses entirely on behaviours and ignores cognitions
- sigmund freud argued that a lot of self-destructive behaviour comes from hidden though-processes in the unconcious mind and arent learned
15
Q
- evidence: explain an example of an opposing learning theory and how they explain different things
A
- CC explains the acquisition of involuntary behaviours
- OC explains the maintenance of them
16
Q
what is operant conditioning?
A
- learning through reward and punishment
17
Q
what is reinforcement?
A
- when a desired behaviour is rewarded
- this makes it more likely to be repeated
18
Q
what is positive reinforcement?
A
- rewards the desired behaviour by adding something pleasant
19
Q
what is negative reinforcement?
A
- rewards the desired behaviour by removing something unpleasant
20
Q
what is primary reinforcement?
A
- when the reward is something we want naturally, a basic need
21
Q
what is secondary reinforcement?
A
- a reward we have learned to value
22
Q
what is punishment?
A
- when an undesirable behaviour produces unpleasant responses
23
Q
what is positive punishment?
A
- punishes the undesirable behviour by adding something unpleasant
24
Q
what is negative punishment?
A
- punishes an undesirable behaviour by removing something pleasant
25
what 2 things must effective conditioning be?
- contingent
- contiguent
26
what does contingent mean?
- theres a clear link between the persons behaviour and the consequence it produces
27
what does contiguent mean?
- the consequence follows soon after the behaviour
28
explain Skinners Box
- placed rats in a skinners box
- the box contained a lever, a light, and a food dispenser
- if the rat pressed the lever, the light came on and a food pellet rolled down the chute
- rats quickly learned the press the lever to get food because the consquence was contingent and contiguent
29
explain the Superstigeous Pigeon
- 8 pigeons were starved to make them hungry and then put in a cage
- every 15s, a food dispenser would swing into the cage for 5s, and then back out
- when the food was due to appear, the pigeons showed strange behaviours like making swaying motions
- this is because they were repeating what behaviour they had been in the middle of when the reinforcement was first offered to them
30
whats a fixed interval?
- the reward turns up at a regular time
31
whats a variable interval?
- the reward turns up but you cant be sure exactly when
32
whats a fixed ratio?
the reward turns up after a certain number of behaviours
33
whats a variable ratio?
- the reward is dispensed randomly
34
what is shaping?
- changing the reinforcement to produce very precise behaviours
35
what are the 3 steps in shaping?
1. you reward any behaviour in the general direction you want
2. you reward behaviours that are similar to the specific behaviour you have in mind
3. you only reward the specific behaviour you are looking for
36
+ evaluation: explain an example of supporting evident for OC
SKINNER BOX: rats learned to press the lever to be rewarded with the food
SUSPICIOUS PIGEON: pigeons acted strangely as they wanted the food reward
37
+ evaluation: explain an example of validity of OC
- highly scientific lab experiments
- theory only looks at behaviours, so every step in the conditioning process is observable
38
+ evaluation: explain an example of application of OC
- token economies
- tokens are secondary reinforcers
- reducing antisocial behaviour in juvenile detention centres
39
- evaluation: explain an example of how OC is reductionist and give an opposing theory
- ignored cognitions
- sigmund freud argued that a lot of self-destructive behaviour comes from hidden thought processes in the unconcious mind and arent learned
40
- evaluation: explain the generalisability of OC
- animal studies
- we have different motivations for behaviours
- animals cant think about their experiences and invoke reason
- animals are qualitatively different from humans
41
what is social learning theory?
- learning by observation
42
what is vicarious learning?
- we learn through others' mistakes or successes
43
what is vicarious reinforcement?
- imitating the behaviour of someone who has been reinforced for that behaviour
44
what is vicarious punishment?
- tendency to engage in a behaviour is weakened after observing another being punished for that same behaviour
45
what is vicarious extinction?
- imitation of a behaviour that was observed to be rewarded stops because they are no longer rewarded
46
what are the 4 steps of the social learning process?
- observation
- retention
- motor reproduction (imitation)
- motivation
47
what is observation?
- the process of learning new behaviours by watching others
48
what is retention?
- remembering the behaviour that has been observed
49
what is motor reproduction?
- the observers ability to physically perform the beahviour they have observed and retained
50
what are the 3 types of motivation and what do they mean?
- vicarious: the motivation to imitate a behaviour after observing someone else being reinforced for that behaviour
- instrinsic: its internally rewarding
- extrinsic: to obtain external rewards
51
what must characteristics must one hold to be perceived as a role model?
- perceived similarity e.g. gender, age, race, interests
- perceived status
52
explain bandura 1961
- children were more likely to imitate aggression in a same-sex role model
- as all the models were adults, they have status in the eyes of the children
- male models had more status than female models because of the cultural expectations in the usa
53
how did bandura 1965 show the importance of vicarious reinforcement?
- when rocky was punished, this produced inhibition
- so the children didnt imitate him as much
- when rewards were offered, even the inhibited children imitated rockys aggression
54
+ evaluation: explain an example of supporting evidence for SLT
BANDURA 1961, 63, 65
- used one-way mirrors for IRR
- shows importance of vicarious reinforcement
- shows importance of status and similarity with a model
55
+ evaluation: explain an example of applications of SLT
- systematic desensitisation
- if they see the phobic stimulus being handled by a model without being punished, they will feel better
- if they see this person being praised by the therapist, this is vicarious reinforcement
56
- evidence: explain an example of an objection to SLT
- ignores the nature side of the nature/nurture debate
- some people may be born with predispositions to certain behaviours and dont need role models
- these people might seek out role models rather than just waiting for them to appear
57
- evidence: explain an issue with the supporting evidence for SLT
- banduras study only shows short term effects
- in reality, theres often a time lapse between retention and imitation
- so, studying SLT in the lab is very hard to measure
- they could learn the behaviour in the lab but imitate it later on
58
what is the learning classic study
little albert (watson and rayner)
59
explain the sample of little albert
- 9m at the start, 11m when conditioning began
- baby boy
- mother was a wet nurse
- 'he practically never cried'
- paid $1
60
what were the 3 hypotheses for little albert?
to find out whether...
- they could condition fear of an animal by simultaneously presenting the animal and striking a steel bar to frighten the child
- the fear would be transferred on to other animals and objects
- there would be an effect of time on the conditioned response
61
explain the procedure of little albert
- was initially not fearful of the rat
- 11m 10d the rat was presented without the sound and he began to cry and crawl away
- watson hid behind the curtain when the sound was made to ensure albert associated the sound with the rat alone
- stimulus generalised to white rabbit, santa mask and a fur coat
62
+ evaluation: explain the reliability of little albert
- standardised procedures, consistent pairing of the white rat (NS) with the metal bar sound (UCS)
- for ethical reasons it wouldnt be, but it could easily be replicated
- filmed so high IRR as we can see his fear for ourselves
63
+ evaluation: explain the validity of little albert
- high internal validity
- watson hid behind a curtain when striking the iron bar so albert would associate the noise with the rat, not with him or the hammer
- tested his reactions before conditioning to ensure he had to pre-existing fears
64
- evaluation: explain the generalisability of little albert
- although albert was selected for his normalcy, all n=1 studies have problems
- we are not certain of alberts identity so we have no way of knowing how representative a child he was
- ppt variables
65
- evaluation: explain the ethics of little albert
- protection from harm: didnt extinguish his fear, long-term phobia, cried, distressed
66
what is the learning contemporary study?
- capafons et al
67
what was the aim of capafons?
- to test whether systematic desensitisation is effective as a theraputic technique for treating aerophobia
68
explain the sample of capafons
- 41 ppts
- 2 groups: treatment and control
- groups were balanced in terms of fear level, age and sex
- volunteer sample froma media campaign
69
explain the procedure of capafons
- ppts privately interviewed to complete the self-report measures
- 2 questionnares
- heart rate, palm temperature and muscular tension whilst ppts watched a video of a plane trip
- treatment group given 2 one hour sessions per week
- after treatment, they took an outbound and return flight
70
explain the findings of capafons
- treatment group scored signficantly differently than the control group after treatment on all measures BUT palm temp and fear without involvement
- only 2 ppts didnt show a significant reduction
71
- evaluation: explain the generalisability of capafons
- low
- volunteers are motivated to recover
- those with severe phobias are unlikely to volunteer
- not represenattive of all phobic responses to treatment
72
+ evaluation: explain the reliability of capafons
- standardised procedures, questionnaires including questions about emotional reactions and physical symptoms
- can be replicated to test consistency
73
+ evaluation: explain the applications of capafons
- results showed that the treatment group scored significantly differently than the control group on all but 2 measures
- so we can use SD to treat aerophobia
74
+ evaluation: explain the validity of capafons
- high internal validity
- quantitative measures of heart rate
- lower researcher bias
75
+ evaluation: explain the ethics of capafons
- volunteers = informed consent
- gradual process = right to withdraw
- control group allowed therapy after = protection from harm
76
what were the 2 aims of pavlov?
- to study how the cerebral cortex works in making associations and to look for a mechanism linking reflexes to cerebral cortex
- exploring how salivation becomes asociated with new stimuli apparently unrelated to food and the properties of this association
77
explain the procedure of pavlov
- lab experiment which took place in a soundproof chamber
- dogs were immobilised and saliva was collected via a cannula connected to the salivary glands
- dogs were observed through a 1-way mirror
- saliva was measured by number of drops
- just before placing the food in the dogs mouth, he sounded a metronome
-after several pairins, the dog began to salivate at the metronome in anticipation of food
78
explain the findings on pavlov
- salivation started after 9s, and by 45s, 11 drops had been collected
79
- evaluation: explain the generalisability of pavlov
- humans have a larger cerebral cortex
- this permits greater cognitive processing, including concious choice
- we also have different motivations, and arent inclined to find food all the time
- may not generalise to humans
80
+ evaluation: explain applications of pavlov
- SD, flooding
- aversion therapy has had some success at curing people with addictions
81
+ evaluation: explain the validity of pavlov
- lab experiment, high internal validity
- findings are objective and scientifically credible
- soundproofed chamber ensures no extraneous variables are causing the dogs to salivate
82
- evaluation: explain the ethics of pavlov
- protection from harm
- dogs were tied up, shocked and were subjected to surgery
83
what were the aims of bandura 1961?
- find out if children would show more aggressive behaviour if exposed to an aggressive role model and vice versa
- find out of children were more likely to imitate a same-sex role model
- find out if boys were more aggressive than girls
84
AO1 of bandura 1961
- 36m and 36f
- 3-6yrs
- stanford uni nursery
- ratings of the childrens aggression was determined by an experimenter who knew the children well and one of the teachers
- matched on aggression
- conditions were aggressive model, non-aggressive model and control
- the children were placed in threes (boys or girls) to ensure gender was controlled
- boys were more likely to imitate a same-sex model
- girls were more verbally aggressive
- children who observed non-aggressive behaviour displayed no aggression in 70% of cases
85
what were the aims of bandura 1963?
- find out if an children being exposed to an filmed aggressive model or a cartoon aggressive model would make them more aggressive compared to watching a live model
- test if watching filmed aggression might be cathartic
86
AO1 of bandura 1963
- 48m and 48f
- 35-69m
- stanford uni nursery
- conditions were live aggression, filmed, cartoon and control
- all groups were individually placed in a room with an experimenter where they were exposed to a frustrating situation to elicit aggression
- after, they were allowed to play in a room full of toys
- toys included the bobo doll and the weapons used by the models
- children who were exposed to any type of aggressive modelling showed nearly 2 times more aggressive behaviours than the control group
87
what were the aims of bandura 1965?
- find out if children were more likely to imitate a role model they see being vicariously rewarded and vice versa
- find out if children would be more likely to imitate if they themselves were being rewarded
88
AO1 of bandura 1965
- 33m and 33f
- 42-71m
- stanford uni nursery
- all children individually watched a 5min long film of a model punching the doll
- 'sock him in the nose'
- film showed the doll being repeatedly hit in the head with a mallet
- conditions were model rewarded, model punished, and no consequences
- immediately after this exposure to their condition, ppts were escorted to a room with a bobo doll, mallets, doll houses
- 2 observers recorded the occurence of matching responses for all 66 children
- those who were in the model rewarded or no consequence condition were more likely to imitate aggression
89
+ evaluation: explain the generalisability of bandura
- large enough samples (72, 96, 66) that anomolies might be cancelled
90
- evaluation: explain the generalisability of bandura
- all taken from the same university
- one of the worlds top unis
- children may have unusual home lives and particularly educated parents
- unrepresentative of normal children
91
+ evaluation: explain the reliability of bandura
- standardised procedure, same script, same checklist
- replicated in 63 and 65
- 1963 study is filmed so high IRR
92
+ evaluation: explain the applications of bandura
- 1963 to oppose the catharsis argument
- used in wwe and boxing which is very popular with young boys
- defenders say watching wrestling helps audiences vent their aggression harmlessly
- bandura suggests the opposite is true
- so we shouldnt show these sports to children
93
- evaluation: explain the validity of bandura
- lacks ecological validity
- children were exposed to unusual adult behaviour
- bobo dolls are designed to be hit and knocked over, so demand characteristics are likely
94
- evaluation: explain the ethics of bandura
- protection from harm, distressing situations watching adult aggression, may go on to be people with behavioural issues
95
what are phobias?
- a type of anxiety disorder categorised by an exaggerated and irrational fear
- leads to avoidance behaviour
- significantly interfere with a persons daily life
96
what kind of conditioning causes us to acquire phobias?
- classical conditioning
97
explain how CC causes us to acquire phobias
- we learn to associate a NS with the feeling of fear
- the phobic object becomes the CS
98
whats a piece of supporting evidence for CC in the acquisition of phobias?
BARLOW AND DURAND
- 50% of the people they were treating for driving phobia recalled a previous traumatic incident that triggered the phobia
- same for choking phobia
99
whats a piece of opposing evidence for CC in the acquisition of phobias?
DINARDO ET AL
- 50% of dog phobics recalled an unpleasant encounter but 50% of normal controls also recalled this but developed no phobia
- behaviourism ignores cognitive factors and so cant account for individual differences
100
whats a weakness of CC as an explanation of phobias?
- doesnt take into account how people can develop phobias of things theyve never had experiences with
- its impossible to CC a fear response to a stimulus that has never been encountered
101
what kind of conditioning causes the maintenance of phobias?
- operant conditioning
102
explain how OC causes the maintenance of phobias
- sufferers may be reinforced for avoiding a phobic stimulus
- avoidance is negative reinforcement
- avoidance means sufferers dont have the opportunity to extinguish the behaviours
103
what theory explains how we develop phobias of things we have never encountered?
- social learning theory
104
explain how slt causes phobias of things we've never encountered
- we observe phobic behaviours in models
- imitate the same behaviours
105
whats a piece of supporting evidence for SLT in developing phobias of unencountered things?
LEIB ET AL
- found that children of parents with social phobia are also likely to have social phobia
106
- evaluation: explain how learning theories as an explanation of phobias are deterministic
- suggests behaviour is controlled by the environment
- ignores free will and our individual ability to control our own behaviour
107
- evaluation: explain a piece of opposing evidence for learning theories as an explanation of phobias
DINARDO ET AL
- 50% of dog phobics recalled an unpleasant encounter but 50% of normal controls also recalled this but developed no phobia
- behaviourism ignores cognitive factors and so cant account for individual differences
108
+ evaluation: explain a piece of supporting evidence for learning theories as an explanation of phobias
LITTLE ALBERT
- high internal validity
- watson hid behind a curtain when striking the iron bar so albert would associate the noise with the rat, not with him or the hammer
- tested his reactions before conditioning to ensure he had to pre-existing fears
109
+ evaluation: explain an application of learning theories as an explanation of phobias
- SD
- flooding
110
what is reciprocal inhibition?
- 2 opposing feelings that cant be felt at the same time
111
what is functional analysis?
- an interview with your therapist to work out how severe the fear is and how it affects your life etc
112
whats the difference between in vivo and in vitro?
- in vivo: real life
- in vitro: imagination
113
what are the 3 stages of SD?
1. relaxation
2. anxiety hierarchy
3. gradual exposure
114
+ evaluation: explain an example of credibility of SD
- based on CC which has loads of evidence
- mostly controlled lab environments
- e.g. little albert
- suggests phobias are learnt and can be unlearned
115
- evaluation: explain an objection of SD
- unethical, protection from harm
- it could make the patient even more frightened
- however, it goes at the patients pace and respects their autonomy
116
+ evaluation SD: whats a difference between flooding and SD?
- more ethical
- ppts are only gradually exposed to their phobic stimulus rather than immediately
- less distressing
117
- evaluation: whats a weakness of the applications of SD?
- only works for physical phobias
118
what are the 2 stages of flooding?
1. immediate exposure
2. extinction
119
how does flooding extinguish phobias?
- there is no option for avoidance so patient quickly learns that the stimulus is harmless
120
+ evaluation: explain an example of credibility of flooding
- based on CC which has loads of evidence
- mostly controlled lab environments
- e.g. little albert
- suggests phobias are learnt and can be unlearned
121
- evaluation: explain an objection of flooding
- danger of spontaneous recovery
- the therapy doesnt replace the fear response with another, theres just no response
- the sessions arent long
122
- evaluation F: explain a difference between SD and flooding
- less ethical
- in SD ppts are only gradually exposed to their phobic stimulus rather than immediately
- more distressing
123
+ evaluation: explain an application of flooding
- CBT
- a type of talking therapy that helps you identify and change unhelpful thought patterns and behaviours
- used to treat anxiety and depression
124
what are an example of environmental influences?
- patterns of rewards and associations
125
what is the result of different individuals observing different behaviours?
- leads to different patterns of behaviour
126
explain how CC will differ between people
- our experiences lead to different associations between a NS and UCS
- leading to an UCR which the changes after the learning process
- the NS becomes the CS and the UCR becomes the CR
127
explain how OC will differ between people
- different patterns of reinforcement and punishment which shape our behaviour
128
explain how SLT will differ between people
- exposure to different role models
- modelling different behaviours
129
how is gender learned?
- gender behaviours are learnt through the process of observational learning
- we imitate those who we perceive to be similar to us
- those behaviours are either reinforced or punished
- we also learn through vicarious learning and motivation
130
how did skinner view babies in terms of language development?
- 'empty vessels' which language had to be 'put into'
131
how do children learn language according to OC?
- parents reward infant vocalisations (babbling) by giving them attention
- this increases the frequency of vocalisation
- children only progress is the parents shape their language
- after rewarding the infant for some time, parents get used to the babbling and dont pay as much attention to it
- this motivates the infant to vary the babbling
132
give 2 pros and cons of the learning approach to language development
+ evidence: skinner showed we learn through reward and punishment
+ evidence: bandura showed how we learn through role models
- shaping is a lengthy process whereas a childs language development (especially in the 2nd year of life) is very quick
- the biological approach suggests we have a biological predisposition and a LAD
133
how do children learn gender according to learning psych?
- acquisition of sex-typed behaviour
- reinforcement and punishment
- bahviour shaping
- modelling
134
give 2 pros and cons of the learning approach to gender development
+ evidence: sears et al found mothers believed being a boy what synonymous with violence
+ evidence: fagot found boys were reinforced for playing with bricks and girls for staying close to parents
- david reimer
- some aspects of gender role behaviour are universal, suggests its innate
135
what is event sampling?
- a sampling technique used in observations to record certain pre-established behaviours each time they occur
136
what is time sampling?
- a sampling technique used in observations to record behaviours at pre-determined time intervals rather than watching for the entire time
137
what are the 2 types of observational method?
- naturalistic
- structured
138
what are covert observations?
- the identity of the researcher, nature of the research, and the fact ppts are being observed is concealed from those who are being studies
139
what are overt observations?
- researcher is open about their intentions in the field
- all members of the social group are away of whats happening
- those being observed are aware of the observers presence
140
what are participant observations?
- observer participiates in ongoing activities and records observations
141
what are non-participant observations?
- observing participants without actively participating
- stay seperate from the activities being observed
142
whats a pro and con of naturalistic observations?
+ captures authentic behaviours, ecological validity, no demand characteristics
- observer bias
143
whats a pro and con of structured observations?
+ reliable, standardised, quantitative data
- artificial, lacks ecological validity
144
whats a pro and con of covert observations?
+ minimises observer effects and demand characteristics
- ethics, informed consent
145
whats a pro and con of overt observations?
+ ethics, informed consent
- observer effects, demand characteristics
146
whats a pro and 2 cons of participant observations?
+ rich in-depth data
- researcher bias
- objectivity
147
whats a pro and con of non-participant observations?
+ concentrate on behaviours of interest
- demand characteristics
148
what does the Scientific Procedures Act 1986 require experimenters to do prior to research?
- must hold a project license
- must be carried out in a scientific procedure establishment
149
what 3 guidelines does the Animal Act 1986 set out?
- must have home office license
- anaesthetics must be used where appropriate
- caging must suit the species
150
identify and explain the 3 home office regulations?
- REPLACE animals with alternatives wherever possible
- REDUCE the number of animals used
- REFINE procedures to minimise suffering
151
explain the Bateson's Cube
criteria for cost/benefit analysis:
- quality of research
- degree of suffering
- certainty of benefit
152
+ evaluation: explain 3 advantages of animal research
- high internal validity, tightly controlled environments
- guidelines in Animal Act and Scientific Procedures Act
- evolutionary continuity, similar characteristics and brain structures
153
- evaluation: explain 2 weaknesses of animal research
- generalisability, cerebral cortex, different motivations, anthropomorphism leads to exaggeration of similarity
- ecological validity
