Learning

Question 1

Define:

learning

Answer 1

relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience

Question 2

What are the three types of learning?

Answer 2

1. classical conditioning
2. operant conditioning
3. cognitive learning

Question 3

Define:

classical conditioning

Answer 3

learning that takes place when two stimuli, one conditioned and one unconditioned, are presented together to induce the same response

For example, Pavlov rang a bell when he was going to feed his dogs. The dogs would naturally salivate when food was presented to them, but over time when Pavlov rang his bell his dogs would salivate even without the presence of food.

Question 4

Define acquisition as it relates to classical conditioning.

Answer 4

passively learning to give a known response to a new stimulus

Question 5

Define stimulus as it relates to classical conditioning.

Answer 5

change in the environment that brings about a response

Question 6

Define response as it relates to classical conditioning.

Answer 6

reaction to a stimulus

Question 7

Stimuli that increase the likelihood of a behavior are called __________.

Answer 7

reinforcers

Question 8

Identify the stimulus and the response:

When you put food in your mouth, you salivate.

Answer 8

• stimulus: food
• response: salivation

Question 9

What was the premise of Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment?

Answer 9

Dogs salivate at the sight of food because they form associations with food and events preceding eating the food. Pavlov sounded a bell right before presenting food, so the dogs would ultimately salivate at the sound of the bell.

Question 10

Define in terms of Pavlov’s experiment:

neutral stimulus (NS)

Answer 10

stimulus that initially does not elicit a response until it becomes CS

Pavlov’s example: The NS is the bell because it does not produce salivation until it is paired with the food.

Question 11

Define in terms of Pavlov’s experiment:

unconditioned stimulus (UCS or US)

Answer 11

reflexively, automatically brings about a response

Pavlov’s example: Food is the UCS because it automatically brings about salivation.

Question 12

Define in terms of Pavlov’s experiment:

unconditioned response (UCR or UR)

Answer 12

automatic, involuntary reaction to the unconditioned stimulus

Pavlov’s example: The UCR is salivation because the dogs automatically salivate when they eat food.

Question 13

Define in terms of Pavlov’s experiment:

conditioned stimulus (CS)

Answer 13

starts as neutral stimulus, but when paired with UCS, eventually brings about the conditioned response

Pavlov’s example: The CS is the bell because, when paired with the food, it brought about salivation.

Question 14

Define in terms of Pavlov’s experiment:

conditioned response (CR)

Answer 14

learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

Pavlov’s example: Salivation is the CR because the dog learned to salivate in response to the bell.

Question 15

How is delayed conditioning timed?

Answer 15

neutral stimulus is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus

Pavlov’s example: The bell rings just before food is presented.

Question 16

How is trace conditioning timed?

Answer 16

neutral stimulus is presented and then taken away before the unconditioned stimulus appears

Pavlov’s example: Bell rings, followed by a long time lapse, then food is presented.

Question 17

How is simultaneous conditioning timed?

Answer 17

neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are presented together at the same time

Pavlov’s example: The bell rings and food is presented at the same time.

Question 18

How is backward conditioning timed?

Answer 18

unconditioned stimulus is presented before the neutral stimulus

Pavlov’s example: Food is presented before the bell rings.

Question 19

What researcher(s) were behind the Little Albert experiment?

Answer 19

John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner

Question 20

Explain the Little Albert classical conditioning experiment.

Answer 20

• conditioned a nine-month-old baby named Albert to fear a rat
• Albert wouldn’t cry from the sight of the rat, but cried from loud noise
• loud noise was played when Albert reached for the rat
• Albert eventually cried at sight of the rat

Question 21

Identify the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR in the Little Albert experiment.

Answer 21

• UCS: loud noise
• UCR: fear
• CS: white rat
• CR: fear

Question 22

Define in terms of classical conditioning:

extinction

Answer 22

elimination of the CR through presenting the CS without the UCS repeatedly

Pavlov’s example: ring bell without food, dog will not salivate from bell
Little Albert: present rat without loud noise, baby will not cry from rat

Question 23

Define in terms of classical conditioning:

spontaneous recovery

Answer 23

original response disappears and then returns later on

Pavlov’s example: salivation from bell stops and then returns
Little Albert: baby stops crying from presence of rat and then begins again

Question 24

Define in terms of classical conditioning:

generalization

Answer 24

stimuli similar to the CS elicit the CR without any new conditioning

Pavlov’s example: dog salivates from bells with different tones, pitches, or lengths
Little Albert: baby cries from other white fluffy stimuli, such as white bunnies or cotton balls

Question 25

# Define in terms of classical conditioning: discrimination

Answer 25

CR is only produced by the presence of the CS because other stimuli is too dissimilar ## Footnote **Pavlov's example**: dog will not salivate to a doorbell or telephone ring **Little Albert**: baby will not cry at presence of a black rat

Question 26

What is higher-order (a.k.a. second-order) conditioning?

Answer 26

learning which occurs when a previously learned CS is now used as the US to produce a CR to a new stimulus ## Footnote Example: Flashing a light before Pavlov's bell would train the dogs to salivate from only the light.

Question 27

# Define: operant conditioning

Answer 27

learning that occurs when a subject performs certain voluntary behavior, and the consequences of the behavior determine the likelihood of its recurrence

Question 28

How did Edward Thorndike contribute to research on operant conditioning?

Answer 28

* put cats in puzzle boxes to demonstrate trial and error in obtaining a fish * coined the terms "instrumental learning" and "Law of Effect"

Question 29

What is instrumental learning?

Answer 29

Thorndike's term for type of associative learning where a behavior becomes more or less probable depending on its consequence

Question 30

Explain the Law of Effect.

Answer 30

* behaviors followed by a positive consequence are strengthened and more likely to occur * behaviors followed by a negative consequence are weakened and less likely to occur * concluded by Edward Thorndike

Question 31

What is a Skinner box?

Answer 31

operant conditioning chamber for research animals, designed by B.F. Skinner, that contained levers, food dispensers, lights, and an electrified grid

Question 32

What are the four training procedures of B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning?

Answer 32

1. positive reinforcement 2. negative reinforcement 3. punishment 4. omission training

Question 33

# Define in terms of classical conditioning: positive reinforcement

Answer 33

reward training where a behavior is followed by a reinforcer that increases the probability that the behavior will occur again ## Footnote Example: praise after participating in class

Question 34

What is the Premack principle?

Answer 34

type of positive reinforcement where a more probable behavior is used as a reinforcer for a less probable one ## Footnote Example: treating yourself to an hour of TV after spending three hours studying for an exam

Question 35

# Define in terms of classical conditioning: negative reinforcement

Answer 35

removing an unpleasant consequence ## Footnote Example: taking an advil to relieve a headache

Question 36

Explain the two types of negative reinforcement.

Answer 36

1. **avoidance behavior**: takes away the aversive stimulus before it begins 2. **escape behavior**: takes away the aversive stimulus after it has already started

Question 37

# Define in terms of operant conditioning: punishment

Answer 37

unpleasant consequence that follows a voluntary behavior, decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated; a.k.a. positive punishment ## Footnote Example: spanking a child for misbehaving

Question 38

# Define in terms of classical conditioning: omission training

Answer 38

removing a rewarding consequence following a voluntary behavior, decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated ## Footnote Example: taking away a child's toy after misbehaving

Question 39

What is aversive conditioning?

Answer 39

learning that involves an unpleasant stimulus or reinforcer, such as negative reinforcement and punishment

Question 40

# Define: learned helplessness

Answer 40

state of feeling powerless to change yourself or your situation because of a prior inability to avoid an aversive event

Question 41

What are the three types of reinforcers?

Answer 41

1. primary 2. secondary 3. generalized

Question 42

# Define and give an example of: primary reinforcers

Answer 42

something that is biologically, naturally important and therefore rewarding ## Footnote Example: food and drink

Question 43

# Define and give an example of: secondary reinforcers

Answer 43

something neutral that can become rewarding when associated with a primary reinforcer ## Footnote Examples: gold stars, tokens, points, money

Question 44

# Define and give an example of: generalized reinforcers

Answer 44

secondary reinforcer that can be associated with several primary reinforcers ## Footnote Example: money can be used to buy food and also other enjoyable items.

Question 45

How does a token economy work?

Answer 45

* operant conditioning system * secondary reinforcers are used to increase acceptable behaviors * tokens can be exchanged for privileges and prizes * used in mental hospitals and jails

Question 46

Define behavior modification in terms of operant conditioning.

Answer 46

* small steps are rewarded until the intended goal is achieved * uses the behavioral approach to solve individual, institutional, and societal problems

Question 47

How is shaping used to teach a new behavior?

Answer 47

positively reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior ## Footnote Example: In toilet training, rewards are given to the child at each step.

Question 48

Define chaining as it relates to operant conditioning.

Answer 48

* initially positively reinforcing each behavior in a certain order * later on, rewards only given for completing the whole sequence * in order to establish a specific sequence of behaviors

Question 49

What is the purpose of reinforcement schedules?

Answer 49

to determine how and when reinforcers will be given to the learner

Question 50

What is a continuous reinforcement schedule?

Answer 50

provides reinforcement every time the behavior is exhibited by human or animal

Question 51

What is a partial reinforcement schedule?

Answer 51

* reinforcing behavior only some of the time * a.k.a. intermittent schedule

Question 52

What is a Partial Reinforcement Schedules schedule and what are the four types?

Answer 52

schedule based on the number of desired responses 1. fixed ratio 2. fixed interval 3. variable ratio 4. variable interval

Question 53

# Define: fixed ratio schedule

Answer 53

reinforcement comes after a specific number of behavior responses ## Footnote Example: Every three times you get a question right, you get a piece of candy.

Question 54

# Define: fixed interval schedule

Answer 54

reinforcement comes at a specific time ## Footnote Example: You know you have a quiz tomorrow, so you don't study until the night before.

Question 55

# Define: variable ratio schedule

Answer 55

number of behavior responses needed for reinforcement changes ## Footnote Example: You sit at a slot machine pulling the lever hundreds of time because you don't know how many pulls are needed before the jackpot.

Question 56

# Define: variable interval schedule

Answer 56

amount of time before reinforcement of behavior changes ## Footnote Example: You study every night in preparation for a pop quiz because you don't know when it is coming.

Question 57

How is superstitious behavior formed?

Answer 57

When reinforcement occurs during an idiosyncratic behavior, the organism is likely to repeat that behavior, even though it doesn't cause the reinforcement.

Question 58

What did John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner study?

Answer 58

studied only behaviors, disregarded thought processes because they were not observable

Question 59

What do cognitive theorists believe humans and other animals are capable of, beyond classical and operant conditioning?

Answer 59

forming expectations and being consciously motivated by rewards

Question 60

What is the contingency model?

Answer 60

Richard Rescorla's theory that the key to classical conditioning is how well the CS predicts the appearance of the UCS

Question 61

What model did the contingency model counter?

Answer 61

Pavlov's contiguity model that classical conditioning is based on the association in time of the CS prior to the UCS

Question 62

What is the blocking effect?

Answer 62

Leon Kamin's concept that conditioning effect of neutral stimulus is blocked when already conditioned with UCS. In other words, once CS and UCS are paired, a second CS will not result in the same CR that the UCS received. The second CS is blocked because an association already exists between the first CS and the UCS.

Question 63

Name an example of delayed gratification.

Answer 63

saving money for college or a car, rather than spending it immediately

Question 64

Who was Edward Tolman?

Answer 64

* confirmed the presence of latent learning * found unrewarded rats form cognitive map of the maze so when presented with a reward, they are motivated to improve

Question 65

# Define: latent learning

Answer 65

learning in the absence of rewards

Question 66

Define insight as it relates to learning.

Answer 66

sudden appearance of an answer or solution to a problem

Question 67

Who observed insight in chimpanzees?

Answer 67

Wolfgang Kohler

Question 68

# Define: observational learning

Answer 68

* learning that occurs by watching the behavior of a model * a.k.a. social learning or vicarious learning

Question 69

What are the four steps of observational learning, according to Albert Bandura?

Answer 69

1. attention 2. retention 3. reproduction 4. motivation

Question 70

What were the results of the bobo dolls experiment?

Answer 70

* when offered rewards to imitate violent behavior, did not always lead to response * demonstrated modeling: those who watched violent models imitated them

Question 71

What provides the biological basis for observational learning?

Answer 71

Mirror neurons are activated when you perform an action **and** when you observe someone else perform a similar action.

Question 72

# Define: conditioned taste aversion

Answer 72

* intense dislike and avoidance of a food because of its association with an unpleasant or painful stimulus through backward conditioning * adaptive responses of organisms to foods that could sicken or kill them * a.k.a. Garcia effect

Question 73

Define preparedness as it relates to learning.

Answer 73

Through evolution, animals are biologically predisposed to easily learn behaviors related to their survival as a species.

Question 74

Who experimented on conditioned taste aversions and biological preparedness in rats?

Answer 74

John Garcia and Robert Koelling

Question 75

What is instinctive drift?

Answer 75

CR that drifts back toward the natural, instinctive behavior of the organism

Question 76

What is the evidence of biological factors of learning?

Answer 76

Rats raised in enriched environments had thicker cortices, higher brain weight, and greater neural connectivity than rats raised in deprived environments.

Question 77

What is long-term potentiation?

Answer 77

* physiological change that correlates with a stable change in behavior due to experience * "neurons that fire together, wire together" * studied by Donald Hebb and Eric Kandel