League of nations mandates Flashcards
Introduction
The pressure to create a nation came largely from the changing nature of the New World Order. The creation of the League of Nations encouraged a process of independence and self-determination.
•Part of the post-war settlement – states would mature at some point.
Establishment of mandates: Iraq
- Iraq - 3 ottoman provinces - Basra, Baghdad and Mosul
- Forced amalgamation of 3 states into one, proved difficult obstacles in nation-building.
- Sharp division between Sunnis & Shia’s, Kurds minority 20% of population – resistance to the centralizing the state and unwillingness to assimilate into the rest of the Arab world, shaped pattern of conflict which runs through to modern Iraq today.
- Further tensions – Britain restricted access to the Persian Gulf
- 1920 – uprising in countryside, first message of anti-imperial response.
- Quell response with deaths of 10,000 Iraqi tribes, 450 Brits + £40 million.
British Rationale in iraq
- Britain had economic interests, allowed better communications with its other colonies in India and Suez as well as being strategically close to Iran.
- The new contest and control over oil reserves, new scramble for oil concessions in 1920s.
- Appeared to be a contraction as on the one hand it tried to forge an independent Iraqi state, but same time tried to vest oil concession in the Faysal government.
- As Iraq desperately needed funds, it conceded to pressures and signed a treaty in 1925, for 5 year concession – Iraq did not have ownership of the company.
Nature of rule - iraq
Nature of rule
- after uprising, Britain tried to place much of the responsibility into Iraqi government as they could do to reduce expenses.
- installation of monarchy, King Faysal who had ties to Arab world and previous monarch in Syria. Thought it would prove attractive to the Iraqi civilians.
- Set up an army, education system/
- Britain had to be careful that Faysal would not act as a British puppet.
o Allowed increased agree of autonomy.
- 1930 treaty – Iraq was to gain full independence but Britain to retain military and security privileges (e.g. control over the military.
- 1932 – gained independence and admitted to the League of Nations.
- Britain simply strengthened the particular hierarchies which were already in place throughout the Ottoman Empire
Post 1933 - iraq
- Death of Faysal deprived the country of leadership and removed the monarchy from Iraq.
- government dominated by narrow clique without proper leadership experience.
- Britain tried to marginalise the Shi’as and reinforce Sunni dominance. In 1919-20 there appeared to be pressure to form an ethnically homogenous state which Britain argued would be more secure and stable
- A particular rise in this elite showed a significant trend in a sectarian trend of Iraqi politics. Most were all Sunni Muslims and while the majority of Iraqis were Shi’ia they were excluded from the political structured up until 2003 in US occupation.
- Politics became degenerated into a series of power struggles around who would be PM. Divided over a desire for personal influence.
Iraq during WWII
- Monarchy believed Iraq’s long-term interests would be retained if kept in cooperation with Britain. However, this was unpopular with many military officials.
- 1941 – coup d’état was brought Rashid Ali al-Gaylin to premiership – motivated by Iraqi nationalism and Pan-Arabism.
o Britain and Iraq entered into hostilities, over the orientation of Rashid Ali’s government and the disagreement over the 1930 treaty and whether Iraq was fully independent. Britian went ahead to build an airbase despite hostilities. - 1941 – revolt was supressed and remained under British military occupation during the war.
- Britain crushed opposition, execution of revolt leaders and exiled Rashid Ali.
Syria – Introduction
- Following the break-up of the Ottoman empire – the territory which is now Syria was under League of Nations mandate to be controlled by France.
- Suffered war, 18% of pre-war population died. French imperial rule caused more population losses, material deprivation and social trauma.
French Interests in Syria
- Justification came from religious and educational activities in the region.
- France would never be a true Mediterranean power until it acquired a Levant possession.
Nature of Rule in Syria
policy of divide
political units hindered national identity
division of states
array of rulers
French did not establish indigenous institutions and adopted a policy of divide and rule which encouraged existing indifferences.
- France promoted regional and ethnic fragmentation than national unity.
- Establishment of French political units hindered the development of Syrian national identity. Damascus and Aleppo were divided into 2 separate states. Stressed the distinctiveness of the groups
- Alawaits and the Druze, 1922 provided each of them with a separate state. Until 1942 – the states were administratively separate from Syria.
- Then in 1924, Aleppo and Damascus were joined into Greater Syria. Dominated by Sunni Muslims.
- Between 1923-1926 – 4 different high commissioners of Syria and Lebanon. Discouraged the acquisition of political administration and expertise by local population. Top positions reserved by the French, French advisors with veto powers.
- 1920 – military academy formed many non-Sunnis joined.
The Great Revolt - syria
- Great revolt 1925-1927 – started as local rebellion but spread across country.
- French demonstrated their imperial force with military bombardment killing 1400 people in Damascus in 1925.
- By 1927, 6000 Syrian’s had died, lead to a revised policy for controlling Syria.
Post Revolt - syria
- National bloc (many came from past ruling Ottoman elites).
- Representing land owning classes. “politics of the notables”.
- Adopted anti-French sentiment.
- Convinced the French to accept compromise solutions to Syrian independence. Despite being nationalist, it was of a conservative variety.
Léon Blum Coalition - syria
Léon Blum Coalition
- 1930 – France imposed own constitution on Syria and upheld their mandate authority, denying.
- 1936- Franco-Syrian – alliance between France and Syria, right for France to maintain Syrian sovereignty, air bases.
- 1939 – But after leftist party in France loses power = under French mandate again and loses its independence.
- After 20 years of mandate, Syria had no independence, no institutions of self-government.
Lebanon
- France created Greater Lebanon in 1920.
- Removed the fertile Biqa Valley from Syria and incorporated it into Lebanon.
The nature of rule in Lebanon
- Maronites – envisaged it to be their own state and wanted it to develop as a Franco-Mediterranean cultural orientation.
- Sunni population had their own expectations.
o They demanded unity with Syria and looked towards the Arab world for their source of cultural identity.
o Lead to source of communal tensions but also the existing political culture and geography. Scattered sectarian groups. - Lebanon more receptive to French rule than Syria experienced smoother passage towards internal autonomy.
- 1926 constitution approved creating Lebanese republic.
o it did not imply Lebanese independence, France retained control over foreign affairs and military. Some elements of self-government existed. - 1930s – crucial to reconcile Christian and Muslim communities and persuade them to work together and form a Lebanese unity. Muslim suspicious and couldn’t trust.
- Bishara al-Khuri – sought to form a united front against the French. President a maronite and PM a Sunni,
- State did not achieve independence in 1936 as promised.
Post WWII - Lebanon
- At the onset of WWII, the high commissioner refused to ratify the treaty, constitution was suspended and parliament dissolved.
- During war, the British blockade of the Vichy controlled Mediterranean – food shortages. De Gualle distrust of the British motives in the Middle East sought him to restore mandate of administration which had been approved in 1941. Even though elections in 1943 highlighted the anti-French sentiment, France refused to transfer power.
