Leadership & Org. Behavior

Question 1

Lewin and Schein (1995)
Change and Org Development
Conflict

Answer 1

A three-stage model of change that is known as the unfreezing-change-refreeze model that requires prior learning to be rejected and replaced. Lewin’s theory states behavior as “a dynamic balance of forces working in opposing directions” (e.g. those who protect the status quo and those who desire change). Goal for change is not to have equilibrium because equilibrium is a state of being where driving forces equal restraining forces and no change occurs. Edgar Schein provided further detail for a more comprehensive model of change calling this approach “cognitive redefinition.” (note: related to Stacey’s work on Complexity theory).

Question 2

Patterson(2003)
Servant Leadership
Leader/Follower

Answer 2

Leader’s Agapao: humility, altruism, vision, trust = lead to empowerment and service
Follower’s Agapao: commitment to leader + self-efficacy=intrinsic motivation lead to altruism toward leader and leader’s interests and service

Question 3

Hofstede (1993)
McShane and VonGlinow (2009)
French, Bell, and Zawicki (2005)
Organizational culture vs. National Culture
Culture

Answer 3

Organizational Culture: refers to the assumptions, values, and norms that are shared by organizational members. The values that make up this type of culture are more temporary and easier to change than national culture.
National Culture: refers to the deeply held beliefs and values held by a nation. These are slow to change over many generations.
Note: in global organizations, national cultural always trumps organizational culture (Hofstede).

Question 4

Human Relations and Resources
(1930-1965)
Communication

Answer 4

Status of communication in HRs focus:
Viewed as a tool to coordinate, increase morale, and tap members’ creative resources
• Function: production & maintenance (defined more broadly), limited innovation
• Structure: formal & informal; hierarchy yet some decentralization; downward communication still stressed but with increasing concern for upward & horizontal

Question 5

Max Weber (1947)
Charisma
Leader/Follower

Answer 5

A form of influence based on follower perceptions that the leader is endowed with exceptional qualities. Occurs during social crisis, leader emerges with radical vision/solution to crisis, which creates follower perception of leader as extraordinary. (relates to attribution theory)

Question 6

Yukl (2006)
Implicit Leadership
Leader/Follower

Answer 6

The paradigm of leadership that a person holds which is shaped by culture, experience, and beliefs.

Question 7

Bandura (1996, 2000)
Collective Efficacy
(Note: this relates to the success or failure of groups and teams)
Cognition and Learning

Answer 7

People’s beliefs in their collective efficacy influence what they choose to do as a group, how much effort they put into it, their endurance when collective efforts fail to produce quick results, and their likelihood of success.
Many of the challenges of life are group problems requiring collective effort to produce significant change. The strength of groups, organizations, and even nations lies partly in people’s sense of collective efficacy that they can solve the problems they face and improve their lives through unified effort.

Question 8

Hersey and Blanchard (1977)
Situational Leadership
Leader/Follower

Answer 8

A behavioral theory based on leader styles, follower perceptions of leader behaviors, and follower maturity. Four leader styles:
1. Telling (one way)
2. Selling (two-way w/support)
3. Participating (shared)
4. Delegating (responsibility given)
Four follower maturity levels:
1. Unable and Willing (Confident) = leader sells
2. Unable and Unwilling (Insecure)=leader tells
3. Able and Willing (Confident)=leader delegates
4. Able and Unwilling (Insecure)=leader participates

Question 9

Schlenker (1980)
Impression Management Theory (relates to Charismatic
Management Theory

Answer 9

Since perception is reality, social interaction is akin to theatrical performance; leaders should engage in impressions that persuade desired action.

Question 10

Burns (1978)
Transforming Leadership
Leader/Follower

Answer 10

Contrasted transactional with transformational leadership. Transformational leadership appeals to the moral values of followers in an attempt to raise their consciousness about ethical issues and to mobilize their energy and resources to reform institutions.

Question 11

Edwards (1996)
Person-Job Fit Theory
Leader/Follower

Answer 11

Followers personality matches job requirements = high job satisfaction.

Question 12

Argyris and Schon (1978) – single/double loop learning
Lewin and Schein (1995) 
Systems Theory and Communication
(1960-1980)
Communication

Answer 12

Status of communication in systems focus:
Viewed as ongoing & constitutive, a feedback loop to manage stability-adaptation
• Function: system “blood,” organizes (note the verb!) work (production, maintenance, & innovation) and continually (re)builds structure
• Structure: Informal, networked, multidirectional

Question 13

Heider (1958)
Attribution Theory
Conflict

Answer 13

A person seeking reasons why people act in a particular manner assigns cause(s) to the behavior. Can be both internal (self) and external (others).

Question 14

Janis (1983)
Group Think
Group and Teams

Answer 14

Group reaching consensus without critique or evaluation including:

• Lack impartial leadership;
• Lack methodical procedures;
• Overestimation of group;
• Closed mindedness;
• Pressure to uniformity.

Question 15

McGregor (1960)
Theory X & Y
Motivational Theories

Answer 15

Theory X – employees are lazy and avoid work thus needing high supervision and control; Theory Y – Employees are self-motivated and self-controlled thus needing trusting environments. This is not a continuum but two continuum’s that may both be used as necessary.

Question 16

Cultural Perspectives and Communication
1980 - ?
Communication

Answer 16

Status of communication in cultural focus: 
Viewed as the ongoing activity through which organizational realities are created, expressed, maintained, and transformed 
• Function: maintenance & innovation, defined in terms of meaning systems 
• Structure: mostly informal & emergent (but ex. #2 = formal & strategic), multidirectional 
Equivocation Communication (LittleJohn, 99)
Most people use vague communication occasionally and its used to protect other people’s feelings and escape unpleasant circumstances. Communication behavior is affected by external factors, especially your perception of the situation. Generally used to avoid conflicts.
Uncertainty Reduction (Berger, 1982)
Hypothesizes that uncertainty is an extremely important variable in the development of relationships. Initial interactions cause people to talk a lot to get more info. As uncertainty is eliminated, other information seeking strategies will decline.
Intercultural Communication (Dodd, 1998)
Refers to the influence of cultural variability and diversity on interpersonal communication outcomes. Uncertainty reduction by using communication rules, customs, and phrases that match appropriate symbols to the culture. New culture is created when culture A & B experience positive climate through seeking common ground.

Question 17

Collins (2001)
Leadership Humility - Level 5 leader
Leader/Follower

Answer 17

Identifies 5 levels of leadership:

1. Highly capable individual w/productive contributions
2. Contributing member that works with group
3. Competent manager that organizes people/resources
4. Effective leader that fosters commitment to vision
5. Builds enduring greatness through personal humility and professional will.

Question 18

Fields (2002)
Employee Commitment
Commitment

Answer 18

Defined as an attitude or an orientation that links the identity of the person to the organization or a process by which the goals of the organization and those of the individual become congruent. An employee’s liking for an organization is called affective commitment. Employees with strong affective commitment remain because they want to do so. Continuance commitment refers to an awareness of the costs associated with leaving. Normative commitment refers to a feeling of obligation to stay. Note: leadership and organization’s age are best predictors of commitment (Glisson & Durick, 1988).

Question 19

Kotter (1980)
Management vs. Leadership
Management Theory

Answer 19

Suggests there is a difference between managing and leading people. Kotter believes that many organizations are over-managed and under-led because people don’t know the difference between leadership and management. He suggests that they are vastly different. Each has a positive and negative effect on company’s performance. Kotter exalts leaders as visionary, inspiring motivators of people at the expense of plodding managers. (typical of 1980s leadership theories)

Question 20

Hofstede (1993)
Cultural Influence
Culture

Answer 20

Cultural influences on leadership can be measured in four dimensions:
Power distance – degree of interaction with powerful and individual (high-little, low-high interaction);
Individuality /collectivism;
Uncertainty avoidance;
Gender egalitarianism (feminine/masculine)

Question 21

Bandura (2001)
Ponton (1999)
Human Agency
Cognition and Learning

Answer 21

Intentional actions. According to social cognitive theory, human agency is predicted on the triadic reciprocal interaction between personal behavior, internal personal factors and the environment where all three determinants interact with various magnitudes of influence dependent upon the context (Bandura,1997).The personal factors are one’s cognitive, biological, and affective characteristics and the environment represents everything external to the individual.

Question 22

Avolio and Bass (1985)
Transformational Leadership
Leader/Follower

Answer 22

4 I’s of Transformational leadership

1. Idealized Influence: role model
2. Intellectual Stimulation: solicit input
3. Inspired Motivation: inspires with vision
4. Individualized Concern: thinks of others

Question 23

Ajzen (1988)
TPB Theory of Planned Behavior
Leader/Follower

Answer 23

1. Behavioral: likely consequences of the behavior.
2. Normative: normative expectations of others.
3. Control: the presence of factors that may facilitate or impede the performance of the behavior

Question 24

Conger and Kanungo (1987)
Attribution theory of Charismatic Leadership
Leader/Follower

Answer 24

Follower attributions depend on leader behaviors, where charisma is more likely to be attributed to leaders who:

• advocate an unconventional vision
• make self-sacrifices, take personal risks, incur high costs of espoused vision
• appear confident in their proposals
• inspire followers with emotional appeals
• communicate an ideological vision to justify strategy
• see opportunities that others fail to recognize
• can influence people to collectively accomplish tasks

Question 25

Schneider (2000)
Climate vs. Culture
Culture

Answer 25

Organizational climate – employees perception of formal/informal policies, practices, and procedures;
Organizational culture – shared assumptions in organization.

Question 26

Ciulla (2004)
Ethical Leadership
Leader/Follower

Answer 26

Asks what is good leadership - both effective and morally good. Includes four dimensions: personal ethics, leader/follower ethics, style ethics, and action ethics. (emphasis on good) .

Question 27

Schein (1985)
Three Levels of Culture
Culture

Answer 27

Three layers of organizational culture:
Artifacts – tangible or verbally identifiable elements (furniture/dress code/history);
Values – stated cultural elements
Assumptions – actual values culture represents.
NOTE: values can be espoused (what you say you do) or enacted (what you actually do).

Question 28

Graen and Cashman (1975)
Graen and Scandura (1987)
LMX Theory/Leader-Member Exchange Theory
Leader/Follower

Answer 28

LMX Relationship describes the level of communication between leader and subordinate. High LMX is where there is a great amount of communication, trust, and influence between the leader and follower. The follower is counted as a part of the “in group.” The outer group are those followers with low LMX relationships. The more trust in follower = more responsibility given.

According to Yukl (2010), “the basic premise of the theory is that leaders develop a separate exchange relationship with each subordinate as the two parties mutually define the subordinate’s role” (p. 122). Yukl explains that LMX was formerly called vertical dyad linkage theory Example: Career Mentor/Mentee relationship

Question 29

Harvey (1996)
Managing Agreement
Conflict

Answer 29

It is better to manage agreement than to manage conflict. Leaders should create an environment that encourages followers to disagree. Note: this relates to group think and conflict/creativity

Question 30

Palmer (1998)
Spiritual Calling
Leader/Follower

Answer 30

Leadership motivation is transcendent (spiritual meaning), vocational (work meaning), and social (contribution to society)

Question 31

Critical Perspectives and Communication
1985-?
Communication

Answer 31

Status of communication:
Viewed as a process of systematic distortion and social change
• Function: maintenance, but in a different, “deep structure” sense—to make inequality seem legitimate (or to “manufacture consent”); innovation, also in a different sense—to liberate and transform
• Structure: concerned with the processes & outcomes of hierarchy—formal and informal, surface and deep

Question 32

Herzberg (1959)
Two Factor Theory
Motivational Theories

Answer 32

The spectrum of no job satisfaction or high job satisfaction dependent on intrinsic motivators (e.g. recognition, responsibility, growth) and extrinsic hygiene (e.g. policies, salary, work conditions)

Question 33

Bandura (1996)
Social Learning Theory
Cognition and Learning

Answer 33

Learning occurs by observing, imitating, and reinforcing with stages including: Close contact; Imitation of supervisors; Understanding of concepts, and Role model behavior.

Question 34

Morgan (1997) & Vaill (1996)
Chaos and Self-Organization
Conflict

Answer 34

Chaos theory is the study of dynamical systems that are sensitive to initial conditions (butterfly effect).
Self-organization is a dynamic change within the system/organization where changes are made by recalculating, re-inventing, and modifying its structure in order to adapt, survive, grow, and develop. It’s the result of re-invention and creative adaptation due to the introduction of, or being in a constant state of, perturbed equilibrium.

Question 35

Fishbein and Azjen (1975, 1980)
Theory of Attitude (a.k.a. Theory of Reasoned Action) (TRA)
Cognition and Learning

Answer 35

This led to the study of attitude and behavior. Ky application of the theory of reasoned action is prediction of behavioral intention (Note: this is linked to personal agency). Three general constructs that make up this theory: behavioral intention (BI), attitude (A), and subjective norm (SN). TRA suggests that a person’s behavioral intention depends on the person’s attitude about the behavior and subjective norms (BI = A + SN). If a person intends to do a behavior then it is likely that the person will do it. Note that Bandura said this is not always the case (e.g. intention does not always predict behavior—see human agency)

Question 36

Coleman (2006)
Conflict, Negotiation, and Power
Conflict

Answer 36

Conflict – At least one of at least two parties perceives other party inhibiting or interfering with accomplishment of goals;
Negotiation – strategy to gain as much compliance as possible to one’s own goals;
Power – ability to make something happen.

Question 37

Robbins and Judge (2012)
Organizational Commitment
Commitment

Answer 37

OC in general: occurs when an employee identifies with an org. & its goals, & wishes to remain a member. 3 Dimensions:
Affective- emotional attachment to org & belief in its values.
Continuance- perceived economic value of remaining with the org. Paid well and feels it would be detrimental to family to quit.
Normative- an obligation to remain with the org. for moral or ethical reasons.

Question 38

Carlyle (1888)
Great Man
Leader/Follower

Answer 38

Only individuals with great physical, psychological, and/or spiritual traits can become leaders.

Question 39

Classical Perspective and Communication
(1900-1930s)
Communication

Answer 39

Status of communication in classical focus:
Viewed as a managerial tool to command and control workers
• Function: Emphasis on production & maintenance
• Structure: Formal, hierarchical, & downward
• Informal, horizontal, & social communication = obstacles that should be squelched

Question 40

Davis (1953)
Grapevine
Communication

Answer 40

Term for informal communication: Rumor – unsubstantiated information about events; Gossip – unsubstantiated information usually personal about individuals.

Question 41

Miles & Snow (1978)
Miles and Snow
Archetypes
Conflict

Answer 41

Every organization asks three questions:
1. “who to service”
2. “model to meet service”’
3. “structure to meet service”
Defenders: keep status quo;
Prospectors – pursue change;
Analyzers – balance defenders/prospectors; Reactors – no specific strategy.

Question 42

Maak & Pless (2006)
Responsible Leadership
Leader/Follower

Answer 42

Leadership geared towards concerns of others and asks for what and to whom leaders are accountable.

Question 43

Altman and Taylor (1973)
Social Penetration Theory
Communication

Answer 43

Closeness develops through self-disclosure; relationships have breadth and depth in four stages: orientation – introductory information; exploratory affective exchange – cautious self-disclosure; affective exchange – open self-disclosure; stable exchange – predictive intimacy.

Question 44

Northouse (2012)
Ethical Leadership
Leader/Follower

Answer 44

The character of the leader: Disposition and core values. It is developed.
1. Trustworthiness
2. Respect
3. Responsibility
4. Fairness
5. Caring
6. Citizenship
Actions of the leader: Using morally appropriate actions to achieve goals.
Description:
1. Showing Respect-valuing others
2. Serving Others-others interests are foremost.
3. Showing Justice-use fairness in decision-making.
Goals of the leader Incorporate:
1. Interests of others in the group or organization
2. The interests of the community
3. The larger culture in which they work.
Honesty of the leader: Striking a balance between being open and being candid. Monitoring what is appropriate to disclose in particular situations.
Power of the leader: Power through the ability to affect others beliefs, attitudes, and courses of actions. Ties to French and Raven’s (1960) 5 types of power: referent, expert, reward, coercive, and legitimate.
Leadership Values ( Burns, 1978):
1. Ethical values-kindness and altruism
2. Modal values-responsibility and accountability
3. End values – justice and community

Question 45

Tuckman (1965)
Team Performance
Group and Teams

Answer 45

Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing, and Adjourning
– Necessary phases of all successful teams: Forming – acceptance/avoid conflict;
Storming – competition of ideas;
Norming – One goal/mutual plan;
Performing – Autonomous decision making, little supervision;
Adjourning – Team completes goal and adjourns.

Question 46

Bandura (1977, 1996, 2000)
Self-Efficacy
(Note: this is a foundational cognitive theory that relates to leadership theories, organizational learning, motivation theory,internal locus of control, etc)
Cognition and Learning

Answer 46

Perceived self-efficacy is concerned with people’s beliefs in their capabilities to exercise control over their own functioning and over events that affect their lives. Beliefs in personal efficacy affect life choices, level of motivation, quality of functioning, resilience to adversity and vulnerability to stress and depression. People’s beliefs in their efficacy are developed by four main sources of influence (mastery experiences, modeling/vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and reduce stress reactions).

Question 47

Stewart, Manz, and Sims, (1999)
Group vs. Team
Group and Teams

Answer 47

A group is two or more people who interact in some way; A team has shared commitments and goals.

Question 48

Argyris (1970)
Intervention Theory
Conflict

Answer 48

Intervener optimizing decision-making and/or problem-solving through: obtaining valid information; maintaining free choice of individuals; nurturing internal commitment.

Question 49

Greenleaf (1977)
Servant Leadership
Leader/Follower

Answer 49

Servant leaders are successful by giving attention to the needs of colleagues and followers (those they serve). Characteristics of a servant leader include:

1. Listening empathy
2. Healing
3. Awareness
4. Community

Question 50

House (1971)
Path-Goal Theory (contingency)
Contingency

Answer 50

Leader engages different leadership styles in order to assist followers with finding their path and achieving their goals.
Based on relationship-oriented and task-oriented contingencies. There are four styles:
1. Directive
2. Supportive
3. Participative
4. High-achievement oriented (connects to goal-setting theory)

Question 51

Hersey & Blanchard (1969)
Situational Leadership Theory
Contingency

Answer 51

Based on Leader Styles & Follower Maturity
Four Leader Styles:
Telling (one-way),
Selling (Two-way w/ support)
Participating (Shared)
Delegating (responsibility given);
Four follower maturity levels:
M1 – Unable & unwilling, insecure – tells;
M2 – unable and willing, confident/sells;
M3 – able & insecure – willing/participate;
M4 – able & confident – willing/delegates.

Question 52

Stacey (1996)
Complexity and Creativity
Conflict

Answer 52

Organizational conflict/chaos is necessary for creativity to exist in organizations. Combining insights from the new science of complexity with insights from psychoanalysis, Stacey posits that repressing the anxiety caused by the unstable, ever-changing nature of today’s business world also represses the creative impulses—the “spaces for novelty”—that allow members of the workforce to produce their best work. He pulls together many insights into behavior and organizational functioning that currently lie at the edges of research and practice. . . . Stacey presents an entirely new perspective on what it means for an organization to learn.

Question 53

Burns (1978)
Transactional and Transformational
Leader/Follower

Answer 53

Transformational leadership appeals to moral values of followers in an attempt to raise their consciousness about ethical issues and to mobilize their energy and resources to reform institutions.
Transactional leadership appeals to self-interests and exchanging benefits of followers (quid pro quo). Leadership style based on a ‘give and take’ relationship: 1. Contingent reward – uses rewards for results; 2. Passive management by exception – correction/punishment for bad behavior; 3. Active management by exception – Active monitoring and corrective standards; 4. Laissez-faire – Indifferent/ Hands off. (Note: related to Motivational theories)

Question 54

Fiedler (1964)
Contingency Theory
Contingency

Answer 54

Leaders are either task or relationship oriented. This is measured through LPC – Least Preferred Coworker scale. Leaders will perform differently according to a)leader-member relations, b) task-structure, c) leader position power.

Question 55

Ponton & Carr (2000)
Learner Autonomy & Autonomous Learning
Cognition and Learning

Answer 55

Ponton (1999) defined learner autonomy as "the characteristic of the person who independently exhibits agency in learning activities" and stated that autonomy represents a subset of the attributes associated with self-directedness.
Autonomous Learning (Ponton & Carr, 1999) – Learners should be responsible for their own learning climate developing self-consciousness, vision, practicality, and freedom of discussion.

Question 56

Vroom (1964)
Expectancy Theory
Motivational Theories

Answer 56

Behavior chosen based on expected results varied by: Expectancy – belief an outcome can occur; Instrumentality- belief an outcome will occur; Valence – belief an outcome worth occurring. No particular Bible passages but the concept of believing that changes in our lives can, will and are worth occurring is consistent with the idea of sanctification.

Question 57

Fishbein & Ajzen (1975)
Ponton (1999)
Cognitive Behaviors and Personal Agency
Cognition and Learning

Answer 57

Attitudes can predict general behaviors but not specific ones. Therefore, behaviors become hierarchical based on the values assigned to them.

Question 58

Bloom, et al., (1956)
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Cognition and Learning

Answer 58

Levels of cognitive learning:
• Remember/knowledge.
• Understand/comprehension (translate/extrapolate/interpret).
• Apply – use in new situations in different way.
• Analyze – identify motives and make generalizations.
• Synthesize/Create – combine in new patterns or propose new solutions.
• Evaluate – present/defend opinions.

Question 59

Fields (2002)
Job Satisfaction
Commitment

Answer 59

Defined as an employee’s affective reactions to a job based on comparing actual outcomes with desired outcomes (Cranny, 1992). This is a multifaceted construct that includes employee feelings about a variety of both intrinsic and extrinsic job elements (i.e. met worker expectations, employee commitment, absenteeism, intention to quit, turnover). Note: job change or new occupations result in higher levels of work satisfaction. Meaningful work and opportunities for promotion are significant predictors of intentions to leave/quit. Aspects of work situation have been shown to be determinants of job satisfaction. Personal characteristics (age, gender, education level, and pay grade) do not explain variance in work satisfaction. Affective disposition is antecedent to general well-being and reciprocally related to job satisfaction. NOTE: skill variety and role ambiguity are best predictors of satisfaction (Glisson & Durick, 1988)

Question 60

Ivancevich and Matteson (2002)
McShane and VonGlinow (2009)
Acculturation
Culture

Answer 60

Different cultures interacting so that one or both cultures change:
Assimilation – Acquired company embraces acquiring firm’s culture. Best with a weak culture.
Deculturation – Acquiring firm imposes culture on unwilling acquired firm. Rarely works.
Integration – Combining 2 or more cultures in to a new composite culture. Existing culture can be improved.
Separation – Merging companies remain distinct entities with minimal exchange of culture or org. practices. Firms operate successfully in different businesses requiring different cultures.
Note: this is also related to planned change theory, intervention theory and strategic management/mergers.