leadership and management Flashcards
what are Weber’s three bases for authority?
- charistmatic
- traditional
- rational-legal
what is Weber’s charismatic base for authority?
derived from leader’s personality. difficulties arise on replacing leaders, unless suitable charismatic replacement arrives org either decays or survives in one of other two bases.
what does charismatic leadership devolve to if a) succession is hereditary and b) rules are drawn up to decide succession?
a - traditional
b - rational-legal
what are the features of Weber’s traditional leadership?
derived from custom/practice/status. personality is irrelevant.
what are the features of Weber’s ration-legal leadership?
based on legal occupancy of senior positions, and acceptance of formal rules/procedures and impersonal principles. stems from hierarchical position in org and typified in bureaucratic structures.
how does rational-legal authority work in practice?
various tasks distributed among officeholders, whose auth is not personal but is vested, impersonally in the office. clear separation of personal from business relationships emphasised in rules concerning appointment and advancement, which are based on technical qualifications and not personal ones.
what are French and Raven’s 5 bases of power?
- reward power - leader can directly influence subordinate’s rewards
- coercive - leader uses penalties to enforce compliance
- referent - followers are inspired by leader
- expert - follow based on expertise/knowledge
- legitimate - followers accept leader has right to influence them in certain areas
how to Weber’s 3 bases of authority fit with French and Raven’s 5 bases of power?
coercive and legitimate power = traditional authority
reward and referent power = charismatic authority
expert power = legal/rational authority
what is responsibility in a manager?
mgrs can delegate authority for tasks but not responsibility. in a large org it is difficult to work out exactly which layer of mgment is actually responsible. sometimes supposed that what is delegated is responsibility, but mgr doesn’t diminish their responsibility by delegating, actually creates new responsibility for subordinate to themselves.
what are the advantages of proper delegation?
effectiveness and efficiency - develops staff while giving mgr more time
training
decision making
management succession
development and self-evaluation
job satisfaction
what does the process of delegation usually comprise of?
abdication - no formal delegation, crude and usually ineffective
custom and practice - intern gets the tea etc
explanation - brief team on how its done
consultation - sometimes good ideas come from below. point of view of person nearest scene of action more likely to be relevant.
what are Fayol’s 5 functions of a manager?
planning - objectives and procedures
organising - resources
coordinating - sync activities to achieve objectives
commanding - subordinates
controlling - measure performance, correct if. necessary
What are Drucker’s 3 tasks of a manager?
satisfying the goals/missions of an org
enabling workers to achieve and focus on productivity
managing social responsibility
what are Mintzberg’s managerial roles (in the 3 groups)?
interpersonal role: leader (responsible for motivating), liaison (network), figurehead (represent the org)
informational role: monitor (help develop org’s understanding), disseminator (share info with employees), spokesperson (communicate to those in and out of org)
decisional role: entrepreneur (make changes/new ideas), disturbance handler (pressures, resource allocation, budget/timelines), negotiator (disputes)
what are the main schools of management thinking?
classical: scientific/Taylorism, administrative mgment, bureaucracy
Human relations school: Herzberg
systems theory: Trist and Bamforth
contingency theory
what are the characteristics of the classical school of management thinking?
emphasis on technical/economic aspects of orgs. assumes rational beh. foundation is that management can be learned and codified.
what is scientific management?
Taylor - identified workers vary pace to suit work conditions. mgrs made little effort to specify ‘reasonable day’s work’, no effort made to identify best methods/train workers in them.
what are the four principles of scientific management?
development of a true science of work - what is fair day’s work/pay?
scientific selection and progressive development of workers - ensure worker capable of achieving output/quality targets
bringing together of above two - AKA mental revolution
constant and intimate cooperation between mgment and workers - work allocated through consultation and cooperation
what did Taylor think would lead to best productivity and use of resources?
Taylor saw if specialised knowledge and skills were concentrated in hands of well-trained and able employees, there would be improvement in productivity.
jobs broken down to different functions, each given to an individual. Taylor believed only through effective use of control by specialist that best use made of resources. this increases size of incentive surplus to be shared between efficient staff.
where can we see Taylorism today?
fashion of concentrating customer service into call centres is classic application of scientific mgment principles of division of labour and specialisation of function.
what is the main feature of administrative management?
Fayol’s 5 functions of management:
planning, organising, coordinating, commanding, controlling
what is Bureaucracy in terms of leadership and management?
operating through power vested in the office. Weber used term to describe most efficient form of org. deliberately idealised model to highlight key features of this form of org.
what are the 8 characteristics of ideal bureaucracy?
- specialisation - clear division of labour and spheres of authority
- hierarchy - offices linked through clear chain of command
- rules - govern decision making and conduct
- impersonality - objectivity and rationality
- appointed officials - mgrs selected by qualifications, eduction or training.
- career officials - pursue career within bureaucracy and work with defined salary structure
- full time officials - commitment
- public/private division - avoid family money use as this creates conservatism due to personal risk.
what are the main disadvantages of bureaucracy?
slow response to change
lack of speedy communication
little need to involve staff in decision making
rules stifle initiative and innovative ideas
little development
no recognition of importance of informal relationships
What is Herzberg’s two factor theory and what school of management thinking does is sit within?
human relations school -
believed human behaviour directed towards achieving certain goals or avoiding negatives. motivational or hygiene/maintenance factors
what are Herzberg’s motivational factors?
challenging tasks
a feeling of achievement
responsibility
personal growth
advancement
recognition of ability
only motivators can move employees to action. not all jobs have motivational potential and are driven by hygiene factors like the need for money
what are Herzberg’s hygiene/maintenance factors?
rules
environment
work breaks
supervision
wages
fringe benefits
hygiene factors only prevent dissatisfaction, don’t move employees to action.
what is systems theory in management?
Trist and Bamforth -
developed from longwall mining in Durham. introduction of new cutting equipment which widened the narrow coal face into a longwall, but resulted in low morale, high absenteeism and deteriorating relationships. found that: close-knit groups had been broken up, communication was difficult because workers were spread out, new payment schemes were causing jealously, too much specialisation was built into the jobs. mine owners hadn’t considered effects on workforce, showing importance of individual and group needs at work. social and technological factors are interlinked and can’t be treated in isolation.
what is contingency theory?
idea of one right approach and whether it belongs to one management school is rejected in favour of contingency. everything depends on circumstances of situation. problems to arise when two contingencies are in conflict, and theory doesn’t describe how to resolve
what are the main contingencies in contingency theory?
related to external and internal environments of the org, a mechanistic org is contingent on a stable environment etc.
what are the two types of org in contingency theory?
mechanistic and organic (Burns and Stalker)
what are the features of a mechanistic organisation?
high task specialisation
defined responsibility and authority
coordination and communication
selectivity in release of top level info to subordinates
emphasis on hierarchy’s ability to develop loyalty
employees often locally recruited
what are the features of an organic organisation?
skills/experience/knowledge all valuable resources
integration of efforts via multi comms channels
leadership based on consultation and involvement in prob-solving
commitment to task achievement, survival and growth most important
employees recruited from all over
when are mechanistic/organic organisations each more appropriate?
mechanistic seen appropriate in fairly stable conditions where mgment of change not important, very related to Weber’s bureaucracy
organic system more responsive to change and recommended for orgs in periods of changes in tech/mkt orientation/tasks.
what are the differences between leaders and managers?
mgrs are people who do things right, leaders do the right thing.
mgrs - given title and therefore power/auth. seldom elected, many lack essential qualities of leadership as concerned with achieving objectives within a time frame and don’t want focus of attention
leaders - providing direction/creating vision and influencing others to share it. arise naturally especially where tasks technical and expert arises to solve
what are the types of leaders?
charismatic
traditional
situational
appointed
functional
what the main theories/perspectives on leadership?
personality/trait/qualities theory
style theories
contingency/situational theories
what is the personality/quality/trait theory of leadership?
earliest attempt to explain why some people are more effective than others. leaders are born not made. common sense assumption may seem sound to most people, but it is impossible to identify consistent pattern of traits which characterise effective leaders.
what are the 5 characteristics of personality/trait/quality leadership?
the impulse to lead (can sometimes be countered by technical leadership).
integrity
self awareness
human sympathy
tough-mindedness
what have personality/quality/trait theory writers identifies as desirable leadership qualities?
motivation, initiative and independence, above average intelligence, self assurance and confidence.
personality theories are not well-developed, especially as cannot account for context, or examples like war leaders who may not have above average
what are the main three styles of leadership?
- autocratic/authoritarian
- democratic/participative - decisions ultimately made by leader
- free rein/delegative - leadership expects group to solve problems
what is McGregor’s theory X and Y?
style chosen by mgr will depend on assumptions they make about subordinates and what they consider attitude towards work to be.
implicit assumptions about nature of human beh and motivation behind good deal of thinking in economics is deemed theory X by mcgregor. he proposed an opposing theory Y which would bring about true innovation.
what is Mcgregor’s Theory X?
the average person has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if possible. because of this, most people must be coerced/controlled/directed/threatened with punishment to put in effort toward organisational objectives. average person prefers to be directed, avoid responsibility has low ambition and wants security most.
what is Mcgregor’s theory Y?
the expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is natural. external control and threat of punishment are not only means, people will exercise self-control in pursuit of objectives to which they are committed. commitment to objectives is function of rewards and satisfaction of ego. personal achievement needs are most significant and are direct result of effort directed towards objectives. average person learns not only to accept but to seek responsibility. capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solution of org problems is widely distributed to population.
what style of leadership would a theory X and Y manager lean to?
theory X mgr would lean towards autocratic, whereas theory Y would lean to democratic.
who carried out the first significant studies into leadership? what did they find?
Lewin’s styles of leadership (1939):
first significant studies into leadership style carried out by lewin, focussing attention on different effects created by styles independent of personality. he focused on democratic/laissez-faire/authoritarian as the three styles.
what is Blake and Mouton’s managerial grid?
grid is derived from precept that mgment is concerned with two things: production and people. developing this concept further, concern for production is not confined simply to Taylor ideal of effective factory performance.
any combination of concern for production and concern for people may be present within an org.
what is impoverished management?
low concern for production and people
no commercial/on-profit-making org will survive with this. may exist on micro scale, if mgr abdicates responsibility and leaves others to work as they see fit. failures blamed down line, contact minimised.
what is country club management?
high concern for people, low concern for production
people encouraged and supported, inadequacies overlooked, has certain drawbacks. can be inefficient, often present in quasi-monopolist time-serving orgs.
what is task orientated management?
high concern for production, low concern for people
people treated as commodity/like machines. (very Taylorist/scientific management). mgr responsible for planning, directing, controlling and can lead to high production but creative energy may be channelled into trying to beat the system. can lead to apathetic or rebellious employees.
what is middle of the road management?
equal, medium concern for people and production. wishy washy
what is team management?
high concern for people and production
may be idealistic. advocates wealth generation, and people who generate production which generates wealth. endeavours to discover best and most effective solutions, aim at highest attainable level of production to which all involved contribute and in which everyone finds own sense of accomplishment. assumes all employees committed to the org.
what is the issue with theories of leadership style?
they ignore important influence of context in which leader is operating. team management cannot be used in a crisis. best style is therefore the one that fits the needs of the team the most, while also satisfying needs of org.
what variables define effective successful leadership style?
- personality of leader (probably most rigid var.)
- situation of group
- task, technology, structure of group
- situation within group (cooperative to militant)
- people within group’s varying intelligence, education
what is a situational theory of leadership?
Adair’s action-centred leadership
Newer theories = leaders have ability to adapt style depending on situation
three components for effective leadership: concern for task, team and individuals
must then bond these together otherwise org tends to stay static
what is the contingency model of LEADERSHIP (not mgment)
bring together personality and situational approaches, best example of an attempt to integrate individual characteristics with structural and task properties of the situation. hypothesis is that situation is going to determine most effective style of leadership. situation is combo of three factors:
- leader/member relations - based on leader’s view of (un)favourableness of work group
- task structure - extent to which leader is able to define and control group’s activities
- leader position power - degree of formal authority/responsibility allocated to position
from style perspective leader can be high on only one aspect at a time - people or task oriented but never both.
also ignored leader effectiveness focusing on group. personality dimensions taken in term of leader’s view of characteristic of his/her group. fails to treat characteristics of leader as viewed by group. doesn’t define situation adequately in terms of itself or subordinates’ definition. also overlooks lot of other moderating variables including expectations of leader beh.
what approach has recent thinking on leadership led to?
transformational approach
dynamic environment for orgs means constant need to innovate and change. to cope, leaders need to creative and capable of inspiring others.
transformational leaders are able to bring about significant change by motivating followers to believe in vision of organisational or political transformation
what two types of leader does Bennis identify?
transactional - followers get rewards for service.loyalty.compliance
transformational - see role as inspiring others to work at level beyond compliance, able to change team/org cultures and move them in a new direction. act as a role model and advocate empowerment.
what range of skills does a transformational leader have according to Boyd?
anticipatory skills providing foresight in constantly changing environment
visioning skills whereby persuasion and example can be used to induce group to act in accordance with leader’s purpose og larger group
value-congruence enabling leader to be in touch with individuals’ economic/psych/physical/other needs to engage them on basis of shared understanding
empowerment skills involving willingness to share power willingly
self-understanding so leader understands own needs and goals too
how should leadership be considered for virtual teams?
people who interact through independent tasks guided by common purpose. essentially teams not present in same office or org but may meet time to time.
key challenge is leadership, members work at different times/locations/varying methods. need to optimise individual and organisational performance
consider communication challenges, cultural sensitivities, performance management
how should ethics be considered in leadership?
leaders must create healthy culture that influences employee actions, decision making and behaviour
Superiority in leadership means having the ability to influence others to behave in a particular way. A good leader will have a strong following and a strong sense of ethics. There is a direct link between leadership and ethics. A leader must display an ethical approach to everything that they do if they want others to follow their actions.
how can an ethical organisation be achieved?
- core ethical values need to be identified and integrated into everything the organisation does
- managers having an essential role in communicating ethics messages
- creating an ethical “tone from the top”
- maintaining an ethical “tone from the middle”
